How to Spot a Drain Emergency in Your Sydney Home

How to Spot a Drain Emergency in Your Sydney Home

Pipe (fluid conveyance)

Understanding the Signs of a Drain Emergency


Understanding the signs of a drain emergency is crucial for every homeowner, particularly in a bustling city like Sydney. Emotional Appeal: Save Sydneys Waterways, Start with Your Drains . With its unique mix of historic and modern architecture, Sydney homes can experience a variety of plumbing issues that require immediate attention. Recognizing the early warning signs of a drain emergency can not only save you from costly repairs but also prevent potential damage to your property.


One of the most common indicators of a drain emergency is persistent and unusual odors emanating from your drains. These odors often result from a buildup of waste material or a blockage that hasnt been addressed. If you notice a foul smell coming from your drains, its essential to investigate further, as this could be a sign of a more severe problem lurking within your plumbing system.


Another telltale sign of a drain emergency is slow drainage. If you find that water is taking longer than usual to drain from your sinks, bathtubs, or showers, it may indicate a blockage. Such blockages can be caused by a variety of factors, including hair, soap scum, or even foreign objects that have accidentally made their way into the plumbing. Ignoring slow drainage can lead to more significant issues, such as complete blockages or even pipe bursts.


Gurgling noises coming from your drains are another red flag. These sounds often occur when there is trapped air in the plumbing system, usually due to a blockage. The gurgling noise is a result of air bubbles struggling to escape through the water. If you hear these noises consistently, it is advisable to contact a professional plumber to assess the situation before it escalates into a full-blown emergency.


Frequent backups are a clear indicator of a drain emergency. If you experience recurring backups in your toilets or sinks, it suggests a severe blockage somewhere in the system. Plastic pipework This situation can quickly become unsanitary and cause water damage if not addressed promptly. Threaded pipe Regular maintenance and inspections by a qualified plumber can help prevent these issues from arising.


Lastly, visible water damage around your home, such as damp spots on walls or ceilings, can signify a drain emergency. Leaking or burst pipes can cause significant structural damage and promote the growth of mold, which poses health risks. Pipe (fluid conveyance) If you suspect water damage, its crucial to act quickly and seek professional assistance.


In conclusion, being able to spot the signs of a drain emergency in your Sydney home is vital for maintaining a safe and functional living environment. By staying vigilant and addressing issues promptly, you can protect your home from extensive damage and ensure a smooth-running plumbing system. Remember, when in doubt, its always best to consult with a professional plumber who can provide expert advice and solutions tailored to your specific needs.

Immediate Steps to Take When You Suspect a Problem


When you suspect a drain emergency in your Sydney home, its crucial to act swiftly to prevent further damage and inconvenience. Drain issues can quickly escalate from minor annoyances to significant problems, potentially disrupting your daily life and leading to costly repairs. Here are some immediate steps to take when you suspect a drain emergency.


First and foremost, its important to identify the signs of a drain emergency. Common indicators include slow drainage, unpleasant odors emanating from your sinks or toilets, gurgling sounds in the pipes, or water backing up in places it shouldnt. If you encounter any of these symptoms, its time to take action.


Once youve identified a potential problem, your next step should be to stop using the affected drains. Continuing to use sinks, showers, or toilets that seem to be part of the issue can exacerbate the problem, leading to more extensive blockages or even causing water damage to your home. Cease use immediately to prevent further complications.


After youve stopped using the problematic drains, try to locate the source of the issue if possible. In some cases, the problem may be confined to a single fixture, such as a clogged sink or toilet. Tubing In other situations, you might be dealing with a more systemic issue affecting multiple drains throughout your home. Knowing the extent of the problem can help you communicate effectively with professionals later on.


While its often tempting to attempt DIY solutions, such as using chemical drain cleaners or makeshift tools to clear blockages, its generally advisable to avoid these approaches during a suspected drain emergency. Chemical cleaners can cause damage to your pipes, and improper use of tools can worsen the blockage or even result in injury. Instead, its best to rely on professional expertise.


Contact a licensed plumber in Sydney as soon as possible. Professional plumbers have the tools, experience, and knowledge necessary to diagnose and resolve drain emergencies efficiently. When reaching out to a plumber, be sure to provide as much information as possible about the symptoms youve observed, as well as any steps youve already taken. This will assist them in understanding the situation and preparing for the necessary repairs.


While waiting for the plumber to arrive, take steps to minimize any potential damage to your home. For instance, if water is backing up, use towels or buckets to contain the overflow and prevent water from spreading to other areas. Additionally, keep an eye on other drains in your home to ensure the problem isnt escalating.


In conclusion, when you suspect a drain emergency in your Sydney home, acting promptly and wisely is essential. By recognizing the signs of a problem, refraining from using affected drains, avoiding DIY solutions, and contacting a professional plumber, you can mitigate the damage and restore your homes plumbing system to proper working order. These immediate steps not only protect your property but also ensure the safety and comfort of your household.

Common Causes of Drain Emergencies in Sydney Homes


Drain emergencies can be a homeowners worst nightmare, especially in bustling cities like Sydney, where the urban lifestyle often exacerbates plumbing issues. Recognizing the warning signs of a drain emergency early can save you from costly repairs and extensive damage. To better understand this topic, its essential to explore some of the common causes of drain emergencies in Sydney homes and how to spot them.


One prevalent cause of drain emergencies in Sydney is the accumulation of foreign objects in the plumbing system. Items like hair, food scraps, and sanitary products can easily become lodged in pipes, leading to blockages. Over time, these blockages can cause slow-draining water, unpleasant odors, and, eventually, complete clogs that require professional intervention. Homeowners should be vigilant about what goes down their drains and consider using drain guards to catch debris before it causes issues.


Another significant cause is the intrusion of tree roots into underground pipes. Sydneys lush greenery, while beautiful, can be problematic for sewer systems. Tree roots naturally seek out moisture and can infiltrate small cracks in pipes, expanding within and causing significant blockages. If you notice unusually lush patches of grass or hear gurgling sounds from your drains, it may be an indication that tree roots have invaded your plumbing system. Regular inspections and maintenance can help detect and address these issues before they escalate.


Additionally, Sydneys aging infrastructure can contribute to drain emergencies. Many homes in the city were built decades ago, and the plumbing systems may be outdated and prone to failure. Corroded pipes, misaligned joints, or collapsed sections can all lead to severe drainage problems. Homeowners should be aware of the age of their plumbing systems and consider having a professional assess the condition of their pipes, especially if they experience frequent blockages or leaks.


Weather conditions also play a role in drain emergencies. Sydney is known for its heavy rainfall, and this can overwhelm drainage systems, particularly if gutters and downspouts are clogged with leaves and debris. Water accumulation can lead to flooding and significant water damage. Plumbing Ensuring gutters are cleaned regularly and that drainage systems are clear of obstructions can help mitigate the risk of weather-related drain emergencies.


In conclusion, being aware of the common causes of drain emergencies in Sydney homes is crucial for prevention and early detection. By understanding the role of foreign object accumulation, tree root intrusion, aging infrastructure, and weather conditions, homeowners can take proactive steps to maintain their plumbing systems. Uniform Plumbing Code Regular maintenance, inspections, and mindful use of drains can help you spot potential issues early, preventing them from escalating into full-blown emergencies. Remember, when in doubt, it is always wise to consult a professional plumber to ensure the health and longevity of your homes drainage system.

When to Call a Professional Plumber


Living in Sydney, with its diverse climate and unique plumbing challenges, means that homeowners must remain vigilant about the state of their drains. While some minor plumbing issues can be resolved with a little DIY knowledge and effort, there are certain situations where calling a professional plumber becomes not just advisable, but essential. Understanding how to spot a drain emergency can save you from costly repairs and potential damage to your home.


First and foremost, one of the most evident signs of a drain emergency is water backing up. If water begins to reverse its flow, coming up through sinks, toilets, or showers, it indicates a severe blockage that demands immediate attention. This can often be caused by accumulated debris, tree roots infiltrating sewer lines, or even a collapsed pipe. In such cases, professional plumbers have the tools and expertise to identify the root cause and implement a swift solution.


Another clear indication that you should call a plumber is the presence of persistent bad odors emanating from your drains. While occasional smells can be normal, especially in bathrooms, a constant foul odor suggests a deeper issue, such as a blockage or a sewer gas leak. These are not just unpleasant; they can pose health risks to your household. Professional plumbers can diagnose the problem and ensure that your home remains a safe and pleasant environment.


Furthermore, the presence of slow-draining water in any of your fixtures is a red flag. While this might seem like a minor inconvenience, it often hints at a developing blockage. Over time, this can escalate into a full-blown emergency, causing water to overflow and potentially damage your property. Regular maintenance can help prevent such occurrences, but when slow drains become a frequent issue, it's time to get a professional assessment.


Flooding is perhaps one of the most alarming signs of a drain emergency. Whether it's due to a burst pipe, a severe blockage, or heavy rainfall overwhelming the drainage system, flooding can cause extensive damage in a short period. In such scenarios, it is crucial to act quickly and contact a professional plumber who can mitigate the damage and restore normalcy.


Lastly, unusual noises, such as gurgling sounds from your drains, can indicate air trapped due to a blockage or a problem in the venting system. While these noises might initially seem harmless, they can precede more serious plumbing issues. A professional plumber can accurately diagnose the cause and take corrective measures before it escalates.


In conclusion, while some plumbing issues can be managed independently, recognizing when to call a professional plumber is key to maintaining the integrity of your Sydney home's plumbing system. Water backups, persistent odors, slow drains, flooding, and unusual noises are all signs of potential emergencies that require professional intervention. By acting swiftly and enlisting expert help, you can prevent minor issues from developing into costly and damaging problems. Remember, when it comes to plumbing, it's always better to be safe than sorry.

Plumbing Services Sydney

 

A complex arrangement of rigid steel piping and stop valves regulate flow to various parts of the building, with an evident preference for right-angle pipe bends and orthogonal pipe routes.

Plumbing is any system that conveys fluids for a wide range of applications. Plumbing uses pipes, valves, plumbing fixtures, tanks, and other apparatuses to convey fluids.[1] Heating and cooling (HVAC), waste removal, and potable water delivery are among the most common uses for plumbing, but it is not limited to these applications.[2] The word derives from the Latin for lead, plumbum, as the first effective pipes used in the Roman era were lead pipes.[3]

In the developed world, plumbing infrastructure is critical to public health and sanitation.[4][5]

Boilermakers and pipefitters are not plumbers although they work with piping as part of their trade and their work can include some plumbing.

History

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Roman lead pipe with a folded seam, at the Roman Baths in Bath, England

Plumbing originated during ancient civilizations, as they developed public baths and needed to provide potable water and wastewater removal for larger numbers of people.[6]

The Mesopotamians introduced the world to clay sewer pipes around 4000 BCE, with the earliest examples found in the Temple of Bel at Nippur and at Eshnunna,[7] used to remove wastewater from sites, and capture rainwater, in wells. The city of Uruk contains the oldest known examples of brick constructed Latrines, constructed atop interconnecting fired clay sewer pipes, c. 3200 BCE.[8][9] Clay pipes were later used in the Hittite city of Hattusa.[10] They had easily detachable and replaceable segments, and allowed for cleaning.

Standardized earthen plumbing pipes with broad flanges making use of asphalt for preventing leakages appeared in the urban settlements of the Indus Valley civilization by 2700 BC.[11]

Copper piping appeared in Egypt by 2400 BCE, with the Pyramid of Sahure and adjoining temple complex at Abusir, found to be connected by a copper waste pipe.[12]

The word "plumber" dates from the Roman Empire.[13] The Latin for lead is plumbum. Roman roofs used lead in conduits and drain pipes[14] and some were also covered with lead. Lead was also used for piping and for making baths.[15]

Plumbing reached its early apex in ancient Rome, which saw the introduction of expansive systems of aqueducts, tile wastewater removal, and widespread use of lead pipes. The Romans used lead pipe inscriptions to prevent water theft. With the Fall of Rome both water supply and sanitation stagnated—or regressed—for well over 1,000 years. Improvement was very slow, with little effective progress made until the growth of modern densely populated cities in the 1800s. During this period, public health authorities began pressing for better waste disposal systems to be installed, to prevent or control epidemics of disease. Earlier, the waste disposal system had consisted of collecting waste and dumping it on the ground or into a river. Eventually the development of separate, underground water and sewage systems eliminated open sewage ditches and cesspools.

In post-classical Kilwa the wealthy enjoyed indoor plumbing in their stone homes.[16][17]

Most large cities today pipe solid wastes to sewage treatment plants in order to separate and partially purify the water, before emptying into streams or other bodies of water. For potable water use, galvanized iron piping was commonplace in the United States from the late 1800s until around 1960. After that period, copper piping took over, first soft copper with flared fittings, then with rigid copper tubing using soldered fittings.

The use of lead for potable water declined sharply after World War II because of increased awareness of the dangers of lead poisoning. At this time, copper piping was introduced as a better and safer alternative to lead pipes.[18]

Systems

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Copper piping system in a building

The major categories of plumbing systems or subsystems are:[19]

Water pipes

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A system of copper water tubes used in a radiator heating system

A water pipe is a pipe or tube, frequently made of plastic or metal,[a] that carries pressurized and treated fresh water to a building (as part of a municipal water system), as well as inside the building.

History

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Old water pipe, remnant of the Machine de Marly near Versailles, France

Lead was the favoured material for water pipes for many centuries because its malleability made it practical to work into the desired shape. Such use was so common that the word "plumbing" derives from plumbum, the Latin word for lead. This was a source of lead-related health problems in the years before the health hazards of ingesting lead were fully understood; among these were stillbirths and high rates of infant mortality. Lead water pipes were still widely used in the early 20th century and remain in many households. Lead-tin alloy solder was commonly used to join copper pipes, but modern practice uses tin-antimony alloy solder instead in order to eliminate lead hazards.[20]

Despite the Romans' common use of lead pipes, their aqueducts rarely poisoned people. Unlike other parts of the world where lead pipes cause poisoning, the Roman water had so much calcium in it that a layer of plaque prevented the water contacting the lead itself. What often causes confusion is the large amount of evidence of widespread lead poisoning, particularly amongst those who would have had easy access to piped water,[21] an unfortunate result of lead being used in cookware and as an additive to processed food and drink (for example as a preservative in wine).[22] Roman lead pipe inscriptions provided information on the owner to prevent water theft.

Wooden pipes were used in London and elsewhere during the 16th and 17th centuries. The pipes were hollowed-out logs which were tapered at the end with a small hole in which the water would pass through.[23] The multiple pipes were then sealed together with hot animal fat. Wooden pipes were used in Philadelphia,[24] Boston, and Montreal in the 1800s. Built-up wooden tubes were widely used in the US during the 20th century. These pipes (used in place of corrugated iron or reinforced concrete pipes) were made of sections cut from short lengths of wood. Locking of adjacent rings with hardwood dowel pins produced a flexible structure. About 100,000 feet of these wooden pipes were installed during WW2 in drainage culverts, storm sewers and conduits, under highways and at army camps, naval stations, airfields and ordnance plants.

Cast iron and ductile iron pipe was long a lower-cost alternative to copper before the advent of durable plastic materials but special non-conductive fittings must be used where transitions are to be made to other metallic pipes (except for terminal fittings) in order to avoid corrosion owing to electrochemical reactions between dissimilar metals (see galvanic cell).[25]

Bronze fittings and short pipe segments are commonly used in combination with various materials.[26]

Difference between pipes and tubes

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Typical PVC municipal water main being installed in Ontario, Canada
A plastic water pipe being installed. The inner tube is actually transporting the water, while the outer tube only serves as a protective casing.

The difference between pipes and tubes is a matter of sizing. For instance, PVC pipe for plumbing applications and galvanized steel pipe are measured in iron pipe size (IPS). Copper tube, CPVC, PeX and other tubing is measured nominally, basically an average diameter. These sizing schemes allow for universal adaptation of transitional fittings. For instance, 1/2" PeX tubing is the same size as 1/2" copper tubing. 1/2" PVC on the other hand is not the same size as 1/2" tubing, and therefore requires either a threaded male or female adapter to connect them. When used in agricultural irrigation, the singular form "pipe" is often used as a plural.[27]

Pipe is available in rigid joints, which come in various lengths depending on the material. Tubing, in particular copper, comes in rigid hard tempered joints or soft tempered (annealed) rolls. PeX and CPVC tubing also comes in rigid joints or flexible rolls. The temper of the copper, whether it is a rigid joint or flexible roll, does not affect the sizing.[27]

The thicknesses of the water pipe and tube walls can vary. Because piping and tubing are commodities, having a greater wall thickness implies higher initial cost. Thicker walled pipe generally implies greater durability and higher pressure tolerances. Pipe wall thickness is denoted by various schedules or for large bore polyethylene pipe in the UK by the Standard Dimension Ratio (SDR), defined as the ratio of the pipe diameter to its wall thickness. Pipe wall thickness increases with schedule, and is available in schedules 20, 40, 80, and higher in special cases. The schedule is largely determined by the operating pressure of the system, with higher pressures commanding greater thickness. Copper tubing is available in four wall thicknesses: type DWV (thinnest wall; only allowed as drain pipe per UPC), type 'M' (thin; typically only allowed as drain pipe by IPC code), type 'L' (thicker, standard duty for water lines and water service), and type 'K' (thickest, typically used underground between the main and the meter).

Wall thickness does not affect pipe or tubing size.[28] 1/2" L copper has the same outer diameter as 1/2" K or M copper. The same applies to pipe schedules. As a result, a slight increase in pressure losses is realized due to a decrease in flowpath as wall thickness is increased. In other words, 1 foot of 1/2" L copper has slightly less volume than 1 foot of 1/2 M copper.[29]

Materials

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Water systems of ancient times relied on gravity for the supply of water, using pipes or channels usually made of clay, lead, bamboo, wood, or stone. Hollowed wooden logs wrapped in steel banding were used for plumbing pipes, particularly water mains. Logs were used for water distribution in England close to 500 years ago. US cities began using hollowed logs in the late 1700s through the 1800s. Today, most plumbing supply pipe is made out of steel, copper, and plastic; most waste (also known as "soil")[30] out of steel, copper, plastic, and cast iron.[30]

The straight sections of plumbing systems are called "pipes" or "tubes". A pipe is typically formed via casting or welding, whereas a tube is made through extrusion. Pipe normally has thicker walls and may be threaded or welded, while tubing is thinner-walled and requires special joining techniques such as brazing, compression fitting, crimping, or for plastics, solvent welding. These joining techniques are discussed in more detail in the piping and plumbing fittings article.

Steel

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Galvanized steel potable water supply and distribution pipes are commonly found with nominal pipe sizes from 38 inch (9.5 mm) to 2 inches (51 mm). It is rarely used today for new construction residential plumbing. Steel pipe has National Pipe Thread (NPT) standard tapered male threads, which connect with female tapered threads on elbows, tees, couplers, valves, and other fittings. Galvanized steel (often known simply as "galv" or "iron" in the plumbing trade) is relatively expensive, and difficult to work with due to weight and requirement of a pipe threader. It remains in common use for repair of existing "galv" systems and to satisfy building code non-combustibility requirements typically found in hotels, apartment buildings and other commercial applications. It is also extremely durable and resistant to mechanical abuse. Black lacquered steel pipe is the most widely used pipe material for fire sprinklers and natural gas.

Most typical single family home systems will not require supply piping larger than

34 inch (19 mm) due to expense as well as steel piping's tendency to become obstructed from internal rusting and mineral deposits forming on the inside of the pipe over time once the internal galvanizing zinc coating has degraded. In potable water distribution service, galvanized steel pipe has a service life of about 30 to 50 years, although it is not uncommon for it to be less in geographic areas with corrosive water contaminants.

Copper

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Copper pipe and tubing was widely used for domestic water systems in the latter half of the twentieth century. Demand for copper products has fallen due to the dramatic increase in the price of copper, resulting in increased demand for alternative products including PEX and stainless steel.

Plastic

[edit]
Plastic hot and cold supply piping for a sink

Plastic pipe is in wide use for domestic water supply and drain-waste-vent (DWV) pipe. Principal types include: Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) was produced experimentally in the 19th century but did not become practical to manufacture until 1926, when Waldo Semon of BF Goodrich Co. developed a method to plasticize PVC, making it easier to process. PVC pipe began to be manufactured in the 1940s and was in wide use for Drain-Waste-Vent piping during the reconstruction of Germany and Japan following WWII. In the 1950s, plastics manufacturers in Western Europe and Japan began producing acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) pipe. The method for producing cross-linked polyethylene (PEX) was also developed in the 1950s. Plastic supply pipes have become increasingly common, with a variety of materials and fittings employed.

  • PVC/CPVC – rigid plastic pipes similar to PVC drain pipes but with thicker walls to deal with municipal water pressure, introduced around 1970. PVC stands for polyvinyl chloride, and it has become a common replacement for metal piping. PVC should be used only for cold water, or for venting. CPVC can be used for hot and cold potable water supply. Connections are made with primers and solvent cements as required by code.[31]
  • PP – The material is used primarily in housewares, food packaging, and clinical equipment,[32] but since the early 1970s has seen increasing use worldwide for both domestic hot and cold water. PP pipes are heat fused, being unsuitable for the use of glues, solvents, or mechanical fittings. PP pipe is often used in green building projects.[33]
  • PBT – flexible (usually gray or black) plastic pipe which is attached to barbed fittings and secured in place with a copper crimp ring. The primary manufacturer of PBT tubing and fittings was driven into bankruptcy by a class-action lawsuit over failures of this system.[citation needed] However, PB and PBT tubing has since returned to the market and codes, typically first for "exposed locations" such as risers.
  • PEX – cross-linked polyethylene system with mechanically joined fittings employing barbs, and crimped steel or copper rings.
  • Polytanks – plastic polyethylene cisterns, underground water tanks, above ground water tanks, are usually made of linear polyethylene suitable as a potable water storage tank, provided in white, black or green.
  • Aqua – known as PEX-Al-PEX, for its PEX/aluminum sandwich, consisting of aluminum pipe sandwiched between layers of PEX, and connected with modified brass compression fittings. In 2005, many of these fittings were recalled.[further explanation needed]

Present-day water-supply systems use a network of high-pressure pumps, and pipes in buildings are now made of copper,[34] brass, plastic (particularly cross-linked polyethylene called PEX, which is estimated to be used in 60% of single-family homes[35]), or other nontoxic material. Due to its toxicity, most cities moved away from lead water-supply piping by the 1920s in the United States,[36] although lead pipes were approved by national plumbing codes into the 1980s,[37] and lead was used in plumbing solder for drinking water until it was banned in 1986.[36] Drain and vent lines are made of plastic, steel, cast iron, or lead.[38][39]

[edit]

Components

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In addition to lengths of pipe or tubing, pipe fittings such as valves, elbows, tees, and unions. are used in plumbing systems.[40] Pipe and fittings are held in place with pipe hangers and strapping.

Plumbing fixtures are exchangeable devices that use water and can be connected to a building's plumbing system. They are considered to be "fixtures", in that they are semi-permanent parts of buildings, not usually owned or maintained separately. Plumbing fixtures are seen by and designed for the end-users. Some examples of fixtures include water closets[41] (also known as toilets), urinals, bidets, showers, bathtubs, utility and kitchen sinks, drinking fountains, ice makers, humidifiers, air washers, fountains, and eye wash stations.

Sealants

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Threaded pipe joints are sealed with thread seal tape or pipe dope. Many plumbing fixtures are sealed to their mounting surfaces with plumber's putty.[42]

Equipment and tools

[edit]
A plumber tightening the fitting on a gas supply line

Plumbing equipment includes devices often behind walls or in utility spaces which are not seen by the general public. It includes water meters, pumps, expansion tanks, back flow preventers, water filters, UV sterilization lights, water softeners, water heaters, heat exchangers, gauges, and control systems.

There are many tools a plumber needs to do a good plumbing job. While many simple plumbing tasks can be completed with a few common hand held tools, other more complex jobs require specialised tools, designed specifically to make the job easier.

Specialized plumbing tools include pipe wrenches, flaring pliers, pipe vise, pipe bending machine, pipe cutter, dies, and joining tools such as soldering torches and crimp tools. New tools have been developed to help plumbers fix problems more efficiently. For example, plumbers use video cameras for inspections of hidden leaks or other problems; they also use hydro jets, and high pressure hydraulic pumps connected to steel cables for trench-less sewer line replacement.

Flooding from excessive rain or clogged sewers may require specialized equipment, such as a heavy duty pumper truck designed to vacuum raw sewage.[citation needed]

Problems

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Bacteria have been shown to live in "premises plumbing systems". The latter refers to the "pipes and fixtures within a building that transport water to taps after it is delivered by the utility".[43] Community water systems have been known for centuries to spread waterborne diseases like typhoid and cholera. However, "opportunistic premises plumbing pathogens" have been recognized only more recently: Legionella pneumophila, discovered in 1976, Mycobacterium avium, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are the most commonly tracked bacteria, which people with depressed immunity can inhale or ingest and may become infected with.[44] Some of the locations where these opportunistic pathogens can grow include faucets, shower heads, water heaters and along pipe walls. Reasons that favor their growth are "high surface-to-volume ratio, intermittent stagnation, low disinfectant residual, and warming cycles". A high surface-to-volume ratio, i.e. a relatively large surface area allows the bacteria to form a biofilm, which protects them from disinfection.[44]

Regulation

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A pipe wrench for holding and turning pipe

Much of the plumbing work in populated areas is regulated by government or quasi-government agencies due to the direct impact on the public's health, safety, and welfare. Plumbing installation and repair work on residences and other buildings generally must be done according to plumbing and building codes to protect the inhabitants of the buildings and to ensure safe, quality construction to future buyers. If permits are required for work, plumbing contractors typically secure them from the authorities on behalf of home or building owners.[citation needed]

Australia

[edit]

In Australia, the national governing body for plumbing regulation is the Australian Building Codes Board. They are responsible for the creation of the National Construction Code (NCC), Volume 3 of which, the Plumbing Regulations 2008[45] and the Plumbing Code of Australia,[46] pertains to plumbing.

Each Government at the state level has their own Authority and regulations in place for licensing plumbers. They are also responsible for the interpretation, administration and enforcement of the regulations outlined in the NCC.[47] These Authorities are usually established for the sole purpose of regulating plumbing activities in their respective states/territories. However, several state level regulation acts are quite outdated, with some still operating on local policies introduced more than a decade ago. This has led to an increase in plumbing regulatory issues not covered under current policy, and as such, many policies are currently being updated to cover these more modern issues. The updates include changed to the minimum experience and training requirements for licensing, additional work standards for new and more specific kinds of plumbing, as well as adopting the Plumbing Code of Australia into state regulations in an effort to standardise plumbing regulations across the country.

Norway

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In Norway, new domestic plumbing installed since 1997 has had to satisfy the requirement that it should be easily accessible for replacement after installation.[48] This has led to the development of the pipe-in-pipe system as a de facto requirement for domestic plumbing.

United Kingdom

[edit]

In the United Kingdom the professional body is the Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating Engineering (educational charity status) and it is true that the trade still remains virtually ungoverned;[49] there are no systems in place to monitor or control the activities of unqualified plumbers or those home owners who choose to undertake installation and maintenance works themselves, despite the health and safety issues which arise from such works when they are undertaken incorrectly; see Health Aspects of Plumbing (HAP) published jointly by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Plumbing Council (WPC).[50][51] WPC has subsequently appointed a representative to the World Health Organization to take forward various projects related to Health Aspects of Plumbing.[52]

United States

[edit]

In the United States, plumbing codes and licensing are generally controlled by state and local governments. At the national level, the Environmental Protection Agency has set guidelines about what constitutes lead-free plumbing fittings and pipes, in order to comply with the Safe Drinking Water Act.[53]

Some widely used Standards in the United States are:[citation needed]

  • ASME A112.6.3 – Floor and Trench Drains
  • ASME A112.6.4 – Roof, Deck, and Balcony Drains
  • ASME A112.18.1/CSA B125.1 – Plumbing Supply Fittings
  • ASME A112.19.1/CSA B45.2 – Enameled Cast Iron and Enameled Steel Plumbing Fixtures
  • ASME A112.19.2/CSA B45.1 – Ceramic Plumbing Fixtures

Canada

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In Canada, plumbing is a regulated trade requiring specific technical training and certification. Standards and regulations for plumbing are overseen at the provincial and territorial level, each having its distinct governing body:

  • Governing Bodies: Each province or territory possesses its regulatory authority overseeing the licensing and regulation of plumbers. For instance, in Ontario, the Ontario College of Trades handles the certification and regulation of tradespeople, whereas in British Columbia, the Industry Training Authority (ITA) undertakes this function.
  • Certification: To achieve certified plumber status in Canada, individuals typically complete an apprenticeship program encompassing both classroom instruction and hands-on experience. Upon completion, candidates undergo an examination for their certification.
  • Building Codes: Plumbing installations and repairs must adhere to building codes specified by individual provinces or territories. The National Building Code of Canada acts as a model code, with provinces and territories having the discretion to adopt or modify to their specific needs.
  • Safety and Health: Given its direct correlation with health and sanitation, plumbing work is of paramount importance in Canada. Regulations ensure uncontaminated drinking water and proper wastewater treatment, underscoring the vital role of certified plumbers for public health.
  • Environmental Considerations: Reflecting Canada's commitment to environmental conservation, there is an increasing emphasis on sustainable plumbing practices. Regulations advocate water conservation and the deployment of eco-friendly materials.
  • Standards: The Canadian Standards Association (CSA) determines standards for diverse plumbing products, ensuring their safety, quality, and efficiency. Items such as faucets and toilets frequently come with a CSA certification, indicating adherence to required standards.[54]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Muscroft, Steve (March 14, 2016). Plumbing. Elsevier. p. 3. ISBN 9781136373152.
  2. ^ Blankenbaker, Keith (1992). Modern Plumbing. Goodheart Willcox.
  3. ^ "What Is The Origin Of The Word "plumbing"?". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. May 12, 1942. Retrieved December 27, 2013.
  4. ^ "Health Aspects of Plumbing".
  5. ^ Plumbing: the Arteries of Civilization, Modern Marvels video series, The History Channel, AAE-42223, A&E Television, 1996
  6. ^ "Archaeologists Urge Pentagon To Keep Soldiers From Destroying". Herald-Journal. March 19, 2003. Retrieved December 27, 2013.
  7. ^ Burke, Joseph (April 24, 2017). FLUORIDATED WATER CONTROVERSY. Lulu.com. ISBN 9781365912870. Retrieved August 4, 2017.
  8. ^ Mitchell, Piers D. (March 3, 2016). Sanitation, Latrines and Intestinal Parasites in Past Populations. Routledge. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-317-05953-0.
  9. ^ Wald, Chelsea (May 26, 2016). "The secret history of ancient toilets". Nature News. 533 (7604): 456–458. Bibcode:2016Natur.533..456W. doi:10.1038/533456a. PMID 27225101. S2CID 4398699.
  10. ^ Burney, Charles (April 19, 2004). Historical Dictionary of the Hittites. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-6564-8.
  11. ^ Teresi et al. 2002
  12. ^ Bunson, Margaret (May 14, 2014). Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Infobase Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-4381-0997-8.
  13. ^ Pulsifer, William H. Notes For a History of Lead, New York University Press, 1888. pp. 132, 158
  14. ^ Middleton, The Remains of Ancient Rome, Vol. 2, A & C Black, 1892
  15. ^ Historical production and uses of lead. ila-lead.org
  16. ^ The Travels of Ibn Battuta
  17. ^ Cartwright, Mark (March 29, 2019). "Kilwa". World History Encyclopedia.
  18. ^ "Public Notice .Lead Contamination Informative City Ok Moscow Water System". Moscow-Pullman Daily News. August 12, 1988. Retrieved December 27, 2013.
  19. ^ "Basic Plumbing System". January 13, 2013. Retrieved January 4, 2016.
  20. ^ "Lead in Drinking Water". Epa.gov. February 20, 2013. Archived from the original on January 22, 2014. Retrieved January 22, 2014.
  21. ^ Hansen, Roger. "WATER AND WASTEWATER SYSTEMS IN IMPERIAL ROME". Waterhistory.org. Retrieved January 22, 2014.
  22. ^ Grout, James. "Lead Poisoning and Rome". Encyclopaedia Romana. 2017.
  23. ^ "Wooden water pipe". BBC. Retrieved January 22, 2014.
  24. ^ Rosenwald, Mike (February 11, 2019). "Philadelphia's plumbing revolution: wood pipes - Retropod". Washington Post.
  25. ^ "Types of Pipe Material". Virginia's Community Colleges. Retrieved January 22, 2014.
  26. ^ Worldwide Market for Industrial and Domestic Water Equipment as of 2010. PwC. March 2012. Retrieved January 28, 2014.
  27. ^ a b "Difference between Pipes and Tubes". Retrieved January 22, 2014.
  28. ^ "Wall thickness does not affect pipe o" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 3, 2013. Retrieved January 22, 2014.
  29. ^ "CTS - Copper Tube Sizes - Dimensions used in Plumbing". The Engineering Toolbox. Retrieved January 5, 2023.
  30. ^ a b https://www.cscplates.com/blog/what-is-cast-iron-soil-pipe/ What is cast iron soil pipe
  31. ^ "What's the difference between PVC and CPVC pipe?". August 15, 2017.
  32. ^ Bidisha Mukherjee. "Polypropylene Properties and Uses". Buzzle. Archived from the original on February 8, 2015. Retrieved February 7, 2015.
  33. ^ "Walking The Talk". pmengineer.com.
  34. ^ Copper Tube Handbook, the Copper Development Association, New York, USA, 2006
  35. ^ California’s PEX Battle Continues. Builderonline.com
  36. ^ a b Macek, MD; Matte, TD; Sinks, T; Malvitz, DM (January 2006). "Blood lead concentrations in children and method of water fluoridation in the United States, 1988–1994". Environmental Health Perspectives. 114 (1): 130–4. Bibcode:2006EnvHP.114..130M. doi:10.1289/ehp.8319. PMC 1332668. PMID 16393670.
  37. ^ Rabin, Richard (March 6, 2017). "The Lead Industry and Lead Water Pipes "A MODEST CAMPAIGN"". American Journal of Public Health. 98 (9): 1584–1592. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2007.113555. ISSN 0090-0036. PMC 2509614. PMID 18633098.
  38. ^ Uniform Plumbing Code, IAPMO
  39. ^ International Plumbing Code, ICC
  40. ^ "Miscellaneous Valves". Archived from the original on April 26, 2009. Retrieved December 27, 2013.
  41. ^ "Basic Plumbing Principles". The Evening Independent. November 10, 1926. Retrieved December 27, 2013.
  42. ^ "Key To Pop-up Drain Is Fresh Plumber's Putty". Daily News. January 12, 2003. Retrieved December 27, 2013.
  43. ^ Carol Potera (August 2015). "Plumbing Pathogens: A Fixture in Hospitals and Homes". Environmental Health Perspectives. 123 (8): A217. doi:10.1289/ehp.123-A217. PMC 4528999. PMID 26230512.
  44. ^ a b Joseph O. Falkinham III; Elizabeth D. Hilborn; Matthew J. Arduino; Amy Pruden; Marc A. Edwards (August 2015). "Epidemiology and Ecology of Opportunistic Premises Plumbing Pathogens: Legionella pneumophila, Mycobacterium avium, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa". Environmental Health Perspectives. 123 (8): 749–758. Bibcode:2015EnvHP.123..749F. doi:10.1289/ehp.1408692. PMC 4529011. PMID 25793551.
  45. ^ "PLUMBING REGULATIONS 2008 - REG 11 Plumbing work that may be carried out by unlicensed or unregistered persons". classic.austlii.edu.au. Retrieved November 13, 2018.
  46. ^ "The Plumbing Code of Australia (PCA) - Australian Government". ablis.gov.au. November 14, 2018. Retrieved November 14, 2018.
  47. ^ "Regulatory Framework | Australian Building Codes Board". www.abcb.gov.au. ABCB. Retrieved November 13, 2018.
  48. ^ "Nytt om føringsveier for tappevann - Byggebransjens våtromsnorm". www.byggforsk.no. Retrieved December 25, 2021.
  49. ^ "The Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating Engineering (CIPHE)". Retrieved March 29, 2014.
  50. ^ "World Plumbing Council". Retrieved October 11, 2009.
  51. ^ "WHO Health aspects of plumbing". Archived from the original on June 13, 2006. Retrieved October 11, 2009.
  52. ^ "World Plumbing Council". Archived from the original on January 17, 2009. Retrieved October 11, 2009.
  53. ^ "Section 1417 of the Safe Drinking Water Act: Prohibition on Use of Lead Pipes, Solder, and Flux". August 3, 2015. Retrieved December 20, 2016.
  54. ^ Brown, Norah. "Plumbing Company in Canada". Capital Plumbing & Heating. Norah Brown. Retrieved October 11, 2018.

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Materials used to make water pipes are polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene, polyethylene, ductile iron, cast iron, steel, copper and formerly lead.

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry:

 

Pipes and cables in the Large Hadron Collider, an example of the unity between mechanical, electrical and plumbing

Mechanical, Electrical, and Plumbing (MEP) refers to the installation of services which provide a functional and comfortable space for the building occupants. In residential and commercial buildings, these elements are often designed by specialized MEP engineers. MEP's design is important for planning, decision-making, accurate documentation, performance- and cost-estimation, construction, and operating/maintaining the resulting facilities.[1]

MEP specifically encompasses the in-depth design and selection of these systems, as opposed to a tradesperson simply installing equipment. For example, a plumber may select and install a commercial hot water system based on common practice and regulatory codes. A team of MEP engineers will research the best design according to the principles of engineering, and supply installers with the specifications they develop. As a result, engineers working in the MEP field must understand a broad range of disciplines, including dynamics, mechanics, fluids, thermodynamics, heat transfer, chemistry, electricity, and computers.[2]

Design and documentation

[edit]

As with other aspect of buildings, MEP drafting, design and documentation were traditionally done manually. Computer-aided design has some advantages over this, and often incorporates 3D modeling which is otherwise impractical. Building information modeling provides holistic design and parametric change management of the MEP design.[3]

Maintaining documentation of MEP services may also require the use of a geographical information system or asset management system.

Components of MEP

[edit]

Mechanical

[edit]

The mechanical component of MEP is an important superset of HVAC services. Thus, it incorporates the control of environmental factors (psychrometrics), either for human comfort or for the operation of machines. Heating, cooling, ventilation and exhaustion are all key areas to consider in the mechanical planning of a building.[4] In special cases, water cooling/heating, humidity control or air filtration[5] may also be incorporated. For example, Google's data centres make extensive use of heat exchangers to cool their servers.[6] This system creates an additional overhead of 12% of initial energy consumption. This is a vast improvement from traditional active cooling units which have an overhead of 30-70%.[6] However, this novel and complicated method requires careful and expensive planning from mechanical engineers, who must work closely with the engineers designing the electrical and plumbing systems for a building.

A major concern for people designing HVAC systems is the efficiency, i.e., the consumption of electricity and water. Efficiency is optimised by changing the design of the system on both large and small scales. Heat pumps[7] and evaporative cooling[8] are efficient alternatives to traditional systems, however they may be more expensive or harder to implement. The job of an MEP engineer is to compare these requirements and choose the most suitable design for the task.

Electricians and plumbers usually have little to do with each other, other than keeping services out of each other's way. The introduction of mechanical systems requires the integration of the two so that plumbing may be controlled by electrics and electrics may be serviced by plumbing. Thus, the mechanical component of MEP unites the three fields.

Electrical

[edit]

Alternating current

[edit]

Virtually all modern buildings integrate some form of AC mains electricity for powering domestic and everyday appliances. Such systems typically run between 100 and 500 volts, however their classifications and specifications vary greatly by geographical area (see Mains electricity by country). Mains power is typically distributed through insulated copper wire concealed in the building's subfloor, wall cavities and ceiling cavity. These cables are terminated into sockets mounted to walls, floors or ceilings. Similar techniques are used for lights ("luminaires"), however the two services are usually separated into different circuits with different protection devices at the distribution board.[9] Whilst the wiring for lighting is exclusively managed by electricians, the selection of luminaires or light fittings may be left to building owners or interior designers in some cases.

Telephone wiring from the 1970s. Low voltage cables are often laid across ceiling joists and insulation in roof cavities.

Three-phase power is commonly used for industrial machines, particularly motors and high-load devices. Provision for three-phase power must be considered early in the design stage of a building because it has different regulations to domestic power supplies, and may affect aspects such as cable routes, switchboard location, large external transformers and connection from the street.[9]

Information technology

[edit]

Advances in technology and the advent of computer networking have led to the emergence of a new facet of electrical systems incorporating data and telecommunications wiring. As of 2019, several derivative acronyms have been suggested for this area, including MEPIT (mechanical, electrical, plumbing and information technology) and MEPI (an abbreviation of MEPIT).[10] Equivalent names are "low voltage", "data", and "telecommunications" or "comms". A low voltage system used for telecommunications networking is not the same as a low voltage network.

The information technology sector of electrical installations is used for computer networking, telephones, television, security systems, audio distribution, healthcare systems, robotics, and more. These services are typically installed by different tradespeople to the higher-voltage mains wiring and are often contracted out to very specific trades, e.g. security installers or audio integrators.

Regulations on low voltage wiring are often less strict or less important to human safety. As a result, it is more common for this wiring to be installed or serviced by competent amateurs, despite constant attempts from the electrical industry to discourage this.

Plumbing

[edit]
A laboratory for testing automotive engines, showing plumbing and electrical setups integrated into the building

Competent design of plumbing systems is necessary to prevent conflicts with other trades, and to avoid expensive rework or surplus supplies. The scope of standard residential plumbing usually covers mains pressure potable water, heated water (in conjunction with mechanical and/or electrical engineers), sewerage, stormwater, natural gas, and sometimes rainwater collection and storage. In commercial environments, these distribution systems expand to accommodate many more users, as well as the addition of other plumbing services such as hydroponics, irrigation, fuels, oxygen, vacuum/compressed air, solids transfer, and more.

Plumbing systems also service air distribution/control, and therefore contribute to the mechanical part of MEP. Plumbing for HVAC systems involves the transfer of coolant, pressurized air, water, and occasionally other substances. Ducting for air transfer may also be consider plumbing, but is generally installed by different tradespeople.[11]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "MEP makes engineering projects faster and reduces cost". ny-engineers.com.
  2. ^ Fundamentals of Engineering (4th ed.). National Council of Examiners for Engineering and Surveying. 2000.
  3. ^ "Revit MEP: BIM for MEP Engineering" (PDF). Setty.com. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 August 2014.
  4. ^ "What Is MEP Engineering?". Reference. 4 August 2015. Archived from the original on Mar 24, 2019. Retrieved 2019-03-24.
  5. ^ "Guidance for filtration and air-cleaning systems to protect building environments from airborne chemical, biological, or radiological attacks" (PDF). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Department of Health and Human Services. 2003-04-01. doi:10.26616/nioshpub2003136. Archived (PDF) from the original on Jan 21, 2024.
  6. ^ a b "Efficiency: How we do it". Google Data Centers. Retrieved 2019-03-24.
  7. ^ Staffell, Iain & Brett, D.J.L. & Brandon, Nigel & Hawkes, Adam. (2012). A review of domestic heat pumps. Energy Environ. Sci.. 5. 9291-9306. 10.1039/C2EE22653G.
  8. ^ Kinney, Larry. New Evaporative Cooling Systems: An Emerging Solution for Homes in Hot Dry Climates with Modest Cooling Loads. Southwest Energy Efficiency Project.
  9. ^ a b AS/NZS 3000:2018 - "Wiring Rules". SAI Global. 2018. ISBN 978-1-76035-993-5.
  10. ^ Sonenshine, Michael (Mar 20, 2019). "Migrate from MEP to MEPIT". LinkedIn. Archived from the original on May 20, 2022. Retrieved 2019-03-20.
  11. ^ תיקון ניאגרות סמויות

 

A plumbing fixture is an exchangeable device which can be connected to a plumbing system to deliver and drain water.

Common fixtures

[edit]

Supply

[edit]

The most common plumbing fixtures are:

Waste

[edit]
A water outlet

Each of these plumbing fixtures has one or more water outlets and a drain. In some cases, the drain has a device that can be manipulated to block the drain to fill the basin of the fixture. Each fixture also has a flood rim, or level at which water will begin to overflow. Most fixtures also have an overflow, which is a conduit for water to drain away, when the regular drain is plugged, before the water actually overflows at the flood rim level. However, water closets and showers (that are not in bathtubs) usually lack this feature because their drains normally cannot be stopped.

Each fixture usually has a characteristic means of connection. Normal plumbing practice is to install a valve on each water supply line before the fixture, and this is most commonly termed a stop or "service valve". The water supply to some fixtures is cold water only (such as water closets and urinals). Most fixtures also have a hot water supply. In some occasional cases, a sink may have both a potable (drinkable) and a non-potable water supply.

Lavatories and water closets normally connect to the water supply by means of a supply, which is a tube, usually of nominal 3/8 in (United States) or 10 or 12 mm diameter (Europe and Middle East), which connects the water supply to the fixture, sometimes through a flexible (braided) hose. For water closets, this tube usually ends in a flat neoprene washer that tightens against the connection, while for lavatories, the supply usually ends in a conical neoprene washer. Kitchen sinks, tubs and showers usually have supply tubes built onto their valves which then are soldered or 'fast jointed' directly onto the water supply pipes.

Drains

[edit]

The actual initial drain part in a lavatory or sink is termed a strainer. If there is a removable strainer device that fits into the fixed strainer, it is termed a strainer basket. The initial pipe that leads from the strainer to the trap is termed the tailpiece.

Floor-mounted water closets seal to the toilet flange of the drain pipe by means of a wax ring. These are traditionally made out of beeswax. However, their proper sealing depends on proper seating of the water closet, on a firm and secure base (floor), and on proper installation of the closet bolts which secure the closet to the flange, which is in turn supposed to be securely fastened to the floor.[1]

Traps and vents

[edit]
This drain cover has a container underneath (which can be taken out for cleaning and revealing another container below) acting as a trap. Water inside the container forms a seal when the cover is in place. Positive air pressure will push the cover up, acting as an early warning device. The underside of the cover (centre image) is kept moist by condensation occurring and insects that go back up the drain pipe get stuck to the walls of the cover.

All plumbing fixtures have traps in their drains; these traps are either internal or external to the fixtures. Traps are pipes which curve down then back up; they "trap" a small amount of water to create a water seal between the ambient air space and the inside of the drain system. This prevents sewer gas from entering buildings.

Most water closets, bidets, and many urinals have the trap integral with the fixture itself. The visible water surface in a toilet is the top of the trap's water seal.

Each fixture drain, with exceptions, must be vented so that negative air pressure in the drain cannot siphon the trap dry, to prevent positive air pressure in the sewer from forcing gases past the water seal, and to prevent explosive sewer gas buildup.

Electronic plumbing

[edit]
Sensor operated plumbing fixtures have fewer moving parts, and therefore outlast traditional manual flush fixtures. Additionally, they reduce water consumption by way of intelligent flushing schedules (fuzzy logic) that determines the quantity of each flush based on how many people are standing in line to use the fixture.
A wall-mounted shower sensor

In public facilities, the trend is toward sensor-operated (automatic) fixtures that improve hygiene and save money. For example, sensor operated automatic-flush urinals have fewer moving parts, reduce wear, and tend to last longer than manual-flush valves. Also, they ensure fixtures are flushed only once per use. Some contain intelligence that flushes them at different amounts of water flow depending on traffic patterns: e.g., the fixture can detect a lineup of users and only give a full flush after the last person has used the urinal. For the same purpose, dual-flush toilets are also becoming more popular. A combination of both technologies can allow for saved power and water.

Automatic flush compensates for users who do not bother to flush. Also, since the fixtures are always flushed, there is no need for a urinal cake, or other odor reduction. Sensor-operated toilets also have automatic flush. Sensor-operated faucets and showers save water. For example, while a user is lathering up with soap, the fixture shuts off and then resumes when the user needs it to. Sensor-operated soap and shampoo dispensers reduce waste and spills that might otherwise represent a slippage hazard.

However, many people, especially children, dislike or even fear automatic flush toilets, since they have the tendency to flush without warning, even while the user is still sitting on the toilet. Some parents have started keeping track of public bathrooms that have manual flush toilets, or even carrying post-it notes or other devices with them to temporarily disable the automatic flush sensor.[2]

These fixtures typically cost more to install than conventional plumbing fixtures, because they require the services (or presence) of both a licensed plumber and a licensed electrician. Construction companies on cost-plus contracts may actually favor these fixtures for this reason, although their clients may not. The additional complexity of these fixtures also complicates repairs, particularly the diagnosis of malfunctions causing unexpected flushing. Few electricians, and fewer plumbers, understand microelectronics well enough for complex diagnosis.

Standardization

[edit]

Some widely used standards for plumbing fittings and accessories located between the supply stop and the terminal fitting area are:

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Addison, Riley. "How to Move a Toilet Drain Pipe". Plumbing Advice. Riley Addison. Retrieved 28 November 2024.
  2. ^ Kelley, Tina (Nov 12, 2007). "For Children, a Scary World Out There (in There, Too)". The New York Times. Retrieved 2018-07-25.