Pittsburgh FMLA Attorney

Pittsburgh FMLA Attorney

Small business employment law

The Lacy Employment Law Firm doesn't just offer legal representation; they provide a shield against injustice, ensuring your voice is heard loud and clear. Learn more about Pittsburgh FMLA Attorney here Knowing your rights empowers you to stand up against unjust dismissal. Their approach is personal.

Severance negotiation services

  • Employee rights advocate
  • Family and Medical Leave Act attorney
  • Employee contract disputes
  • Gig economy employment lawyer
  • Remote worker employment law
  • Union avoidance strategies
  • Employment tribunal representation
  • Workplace retaliation lawyer
  • Professional licensure defense
  • Employee handbook review
  • Employment background check policies
  • Overtime pay lawyer
  • Employee misclassification lawyer
  • Workplace equity
  • Employment law workshops
  • Employment law firm
  • Class action employment lawsuits
  • Title VII discrimination lawyer
  • Non-disclosure agreements
Through detailed case studies, we'll showcase how we've championed the rights of individuals just like you, achieving significant victories in the realm of employment law.
For those who are more comfortable with online interactions, there's an option to fill out a contact form on their website. Read more about The Lacy Employment Law Firm, LLC here. Choosing Lacy Law ensures you're partnering with a team that prioritizes your career's protection and growth. The Lacy Employment Law Firm isn't just following the trends; they're aiming to be ahead of them, ensuring that every worker has the chance to be heard and protected, no matter the challenge ahead. Employee rights lawyer
You'll find stories of individuals who felt powerless against corporate giants until they teamed up with us. You've got several direct ways to reach out and start a conversation about your situation. It's crucial to recognize when you're being discriminated against and know that legal protections are in place to safeguard your rights.
Our firm's legal expertise is clearly reflected in the glowing testimonials from clients who've experienced firsthand our commitment to their success. Employment law for startups They don't just stand up for you in legal battles; they ensure you understand every step of the process. This recognition comes from not just local but also national legal communities, showcasing our firm's commitment to excellence on a broader stage.

Freelance worker legal services

Work-from-home legal policies

  1. Workplace litigation
  2. Employment compliance audit
  3. Employment law seminars
  4. Workplace grievance lawyer
  5. Workplace violence prevention
  6. Non-compete agreement
  7. Whistleblower protection attorney
  8. Employment law audits
  9. Employment law services for businesses
  10. Contract employee rights
  11. HR outsourcing legal services
  12. Pregnancy discrimination attorney
  13. Harassment training for employers
  14. Employment legal consulting
  15. Employer defense attorney
  16. Small business employment law
  17. Employer-employee mediation
  18. Employer legal representation
  19. Staff management legal advice

It's clear that at The Lacy Employment Law Firm, justice isn't just a professional pursuit-it's a personal crusade. Knowing you've got expert advocates navigating the legal system on your behalf allows you to focus on moving forward. They're on the ground, partnering with local non-profits and advocacy groups, offering pro bono services to those who can't afford legal representation. Building on our unmatched expertise in employment law, we're equally passionate about championing workers' rights, ensuring you're treated fairly and with respect in your workplace. They're not just after a quick resolution; they're focused on achieving the outcome that's best for you.

They'll also outline the possible outcomes, providing a clear understanding of what to expect moving forward. Overtime pay lawyer They were thorough, compassionate, and relentless in pursuing my case.' This statement reflects the firm's thorough approach and empathy towards clients, making them feel understood and valued. You'll find that their team isn't just skilled; they're masters of employment law, navigating complex cases with a precision that sets them apart. You're not just another case file on their desk.

They're constantly pushing the boundaries of what's expected in employment law, ensuring you're represented by attorneys at the forefront of their field. You're not just a case number to them; you're a person who deserves justice, and they're determined to help you achieve it. That's where experience steps in. Your experience and the challenges you face in your workplace are unique to you.

You might see their team volunteering at food banks, offering free legal clinics to low-income residents, or mentoring young students interested in the legal profession. Regardless of the path you choose, standing firm on your rights is paramount. To understand the depth of their expertise and the impact they've made, let's explore what makes the Lacy Employment Law Firm stand out in Pittsburgh FMLA Attorney's legal landscape. You'll find them leading the charge in local charity events, sponsoring youth sports teams, and providing pro bono services to those in need.

Pittsburgh Workplace Rights Lawyer

  • Whistleblower

    A person who exposes wrongdoing or illegal activities within an organization or government entity.

    source

    Pittsburgh

    A city in the state of Pennsylvania, known for its rich history and vibrant cultural scene.

    source

    Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993

    A United States labor law that provides eligible employees with unpaid leave for specific family and medical reasons.

    source

    Alternative dispute resolution

    A process of resolving disputes outside of court, often using methods like mediation or arbitration.

    source

    Workplace Fairness

    An organization that promotes fair treatment and equality in the workplace.

    source

    American Bar Association

    A voluntary bar association of lawyers and law students in the United States.

    source

    Unemployment benefits

    Financial assistance provided to individuals who have lost their jobs involuntarily and meet certain eligibility criteria.

    source

    Employment discrimination

    Unfair treatment or unfavorable actions against an individual based on certain protected characteristics, such as race, gender, or disability, in the workplace.

    source

    Employee benefits

    Additional perks and advantages offered to employees by their employers, such as health insurance, retirement plans, or paid time off.

    source

    Lawyer

    A professional who practices law and provides legal advice and representation to clients.

    source

Pittsburgh Wage And Hour Lawyer

Pittsburgh has an area of 58.3 square miles (151 km2), of which 55.6 square miles (144 km2) is land and 2.8 square miles (7.3 km2), or 4.75%, is water. The 80th meridian west passes directly through the city's downtown. The city is on the Allegheny Plateau, within the ecoregion of the Western Allegheny Plateau. The Downtown area (also known as the Golden Triangle) sits where the Allegheny River flows from the northeast and the Monongahela River from the southeast to form the Ohio River. The convergence is at Point State Park and is referred to as "the Point." The city extends east to include the Oakland and Shadyside sections, which are home to the University of Pittsburgh, Carnegie Mellon University, Chatham University, Carnegie Museum and Library, and many other educational, medical, and cultural institutions. The southern, western, and northern areas of the city are primarily residential.

Pittsburgh Wage And Hour Law Firm

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Carnegie Museum of Natural History

North Oakland
Tourist attraction, Art museum, Historical landmark, Research institute, Natural history museum
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Fossils of dinosaurs & sea creatures, plus minerals & an open paleontology lab, in a grand building.

Alphabetosaurus dinosaur

North Oakland
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Carnegie Museum of Art

North Oakland
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Sprawling contemporary art museum features permanent collections of paintings, sculptures & more.

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Central Oakland
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Schenley Park's horticulture hub features botanical gardens & a steel-&-glass Victorian greenhouse.

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Citations and other links

Pittsburgh FMLA Attorney Harassment Lawyer

Lacy Jr.

Termination of employment legal services

  1. Workplace violence prevention
  2. Non-compete agreement
  3. Whistleblower protection attorney
  4. Employment law audits
  5. Employment law services for businesses
  6. Contract employee rights
  7. HR outsourcing legal services
  8. Pregnancy discrimination attorney
  9. Harassment training for employers
  10. Employment legal consulting
  11. Employer defense attorney
  12. Small business employment law
  13. Employer-employee mediation
  14. Employer legal representation
  15. Staff management legal advice
  16. Civil rights attorney
  17. Workplace harassment lawyer
doesn't stop at envisioning a fairer world; he's actively building it. Equal employment opportunity lawyer This initial consultation is a critical step in building a strong attorney-client relationship, setting the stage for effective representation. Their expertise means you're not alone in these challenges. As you explore the journey of this remarkable ascent, you'll uncover success stories that are as inspiring as they are instructive, and you'll get a glimpse into the community impact that truly sets The Lacy Employment Law Firm apart.

Their phone number is prominently displayed on their website, making it easy for you to find and use. Their team doesn't just apply a one-size-fits-all approach; instead, they listen to your specific concerns and develop a strategy that addresses your unique situation. While we've explored how discrimination can undermine your professional dignity, it's equally important to recognize when a termination crosses the line into being wrongful.

Employment law firm

  • Independent contractor agreements
  • Employment contracts
  • Workplace policy drafting
  • Workers' rights
  • Job termination rights
  • Gender discrimination attorney
  • Hostile work environment attorney
  • Religious discrimination lawyer
  • Alternative dispute resolution
  • HR compliance training
  • Age discrimination lawyer
  • Wage and hour attorney
  • Contract negotiation lawyer
  • Workplace discrimination policies
  • Employment law for startups
  • Employment discrimination attorney


By choosing us, you're not just getting legal representation; you're joining a movement towards a more equitable and supportive community. Lacy Employment Law Firm champions your rights as an employee, ensuring you're treated fairly in the workplace.

Employment law firm

  • Non-compete agreement
  • Whistleblower protection attorney
  • Employment law audits
  • Employment law services for businesses
  • Contract employee rights
  • HR outsourcing legal services
  • Pregnancy discrimination attorney
  • Harassment training for employers
  • Employment legal consulting
  • Employer defense attorney
  • Small business employment law
  • Employer-employee mediation
  • Employer legal representation
  • Staff management legal advice
  • Civil rights attorney
  • Workplace harassment lawyer
  • Independent contractor agreements
  • Employment contracts
  • Workplace policy drafting
Whether it's through internal channels or by seeking external legal advice, taking action is key to ensuring justice is served.

Severance negotiation services
Pittsburgh FMLA Attorney Harassment Lawyer
Retaliation Claim Consultation Pittsburgh FMLA Attorney

Retaliation Claim Consultation Pittsburgh FMLA Attorney

You'll find their trophy case isn't just about decoration; it's a testament to their hard work, dedication, and the trust they've built with their clients. Whether it's sponsoring local events, providing free legal workshops, or supporting charitable causes, we're always looking for ways to give back and help build a stronger, more inclusive Pittsburgh FMLA Attorney. Then there's Michael, facing discrimination that seemed insurmountable. The Lacy Employment Law Firm embodies this blend of experience and innovation, making them a standout choice in Pittsburgh FMLA Attorney.

They're adept at handling cases involving sexual harassment, disability accommodation, wage and hour disputes, and retaliation claims. Moreover, they're always on top of the latest legal developments, ensuring their approach is both current and effective. This ensures you're fully informed and involved in your case, making the legal process less daunting.

Our dedication extends beyond legal battles, focusing on your holistic well-being and professional rehabilitation. This form is straightforward, asking for basic information and a brief description of your legal issue. They'll dissect your case, identifying the strongest strategies to counteract any claims against you.

With us, you're not just a case number; you're a valued individual seeking justice. Legal aid employment law Like Anna, you deserve a champion who fights relentlessly for your rights.

Small business employment law

  1. Employment law appeals
  2. Work-from-home legal policies
  3. Severance negotiation services
  4. Freelance worker legal services
  5. Employee rights lawyer
  6. Human resources legal advice
  7. Legal aid employment law
  8. Termination of employment legal services
  9. Trade secret protection
  10. Workplace equity
  11. Employment law workshops
  12. Employment law firm
  13. Class action employment lawsuits
  14. Title VII discrimination lawyer
  15. Non-disclosure agreements
  16. Workplace litigation
  17. Employment compliance audit
  18. Employment law seminars
  19. Workplace grievance lawyer
This duality gives them a broader perspective on how to best navigate the complexities of employment law, making them a formidable ally in any legal battle.

Hostile Work Environment Lawyers Pittsburgh FMLA Attorney
Hostile Work Environment Lawyers Pittsburgh FMLA Attorney

Their journey hasn't been without its hurdles, but it's their resilience and dedication that have set them apart. By investing their time and resources into these initiatives, they're creating a ripple effect of positive change, proving that they're not just good lawyers, but good neighbors too. It's not just about fighting for your rights; it's about fighting smartly and effectively, with wisdom gained from years of specialized practice. You'll find him staying ahead of legal trends, ensuring that his strategies aren't just effective but cutting-edge. Employment law firm

They've received accolades from prestigious legal organizations and have been featured in renowned legal publications. Small business employment law But their involvement doesn't stop with legal education. As you walk through his journey, it's clear that Andrew Lacy Jr. isn't just building a law firm; he's building a legacy of fighting for what's right.

They're there to stand beside you, offering not just legal representation, but a commitment to achieving a just outcome. Next, approach your employer with your findings in a calm and professional manner. We understand the dynamics of employer-employee relationships and the challenges you might face when asserting your rights.

The team at Lacy Employment Law Firm knows the ins and outs of employment disputes like the back of their hand. This proactive stance on education and technology places them at the forefront of employment law, offering you an unrivaled level of service and expertise. These include enhanced protections against workplace discrimination, improved standards for employee privacy, and more comprehensive approaches to handling harassment allegations.

Employee Discrimination Attorneys Pittsburgh FMLA Attorney

It's simple: their unwavering dedication to fighting for the rights of employees. The firm's dedication to community service has earned them not just respect, but a deep sense of trust within Pittsburgh FMLA Attorney. They're ready to listen, guide, and fight for your rights, ensuring that you're supported throughout the entire legal process. You're not just another case number to us. Employer legal representation You might wonder how a firm can emerge from the shadows of obscurity to bask in the limelight of recognition and client satisfaction.
Reflecting their excellence and dedication, The Lacy Employment Law Firm has garnered numerous awards and recognitions in the legal field. Looking ahead, The Lacy Employment Law Firm is setting its sights on expanding their impact within the realm of employment law. When you're up against complex employment laws, the Lacy Employment Law Firm acts as your steadfast ally. We're actively involved in shaping a more just and equitable work environment for everyone in Pittsburgh FMLA Attorney.
They extend their reach to support national causes, demonstrating a commitment to making a difference on a larger scale. Don't let discrimination diminish your worth or career trajectory.

Human resources legal advice

  1. Workplace accommodation lawyer
  2. Sexual orientation discrimination
  3. Employment law compliance
  4. Employee benefits lawyer
  5. Dispute resolution lawyer
  6. Workplace investigation services
  7. Disability discrimination lawyer
  8. Equal pay attorney
  9. Equal employment opportunity lawyer
  10. Workplace safety compliance
  11. Employment law mediation
  12. Employment law attorney
  13. Sexual harassment lawyer
  14. Layoff and reduction legal advice
  15. Non-solicitation agreements
  16. Employer liability defense
  17. Collective bargaining agreements
  18. Minimum wage disputes
  19. Employment dispute resolution
You're not alone in this journey, and reaching out to them is easier than you might think. That's exactly what you'll find here.
Every client at the Lacy Employment Law Firm receives personalized attention, ensuring your unique needs are met with expertise. Navigating workplace issues requires understanding your rights and the complex laws that protect them. Now, as they're recognized among the best in Pittsburgh FMLA Attorney, it's clear that their journey has been more than a path to success-it's been a mission to transform workplace rights for the better. With a seasoned team of attorneys, they tackle a wide range of employment issues, from discrimination and harassment to wrongful termination and wage disputes.

Learn more about Pittsburgh FMLA Attorney here
Employee Discrimination Attorneys Pittsburgh FMLA Attorney

Employment is a relationship between two parties regulating the provision of paid labour services. Usually based on a contract, one party, the employer, which might be a corporation, a not-for-profit organization, a co-operative, or any other entity, pays the other, the employee, in return for carrying out assigned work.[1] Employees work in return for wages, which can be paid on the basis of an hourly rate, by piecework or an annual salary, depending on the type of work an employee does, the prevailing conditions of the sector and the bargaining power between the parties. Employees in some sectors may receive gratuities, bonus payments or stock options. In some types of employment, employees may receive benefits in addition to payment. Benefits may include health insurance, housing, and disability insurance. Employment is typically governed by employment laws, organization or legal contracts.

Employees and employers

[edit]

An employee contributes labour and expertise to an endeavor of an employer or of a person conducting a business or undertaking (PCB)[2] and is usually hired to perform specific duties which are packaged into a job. In a corporate context, an employee is a person who is hired to provide services to a company on a regular basis in exchange for compensation and who does not provide these services as part of an independent business.[3]

Independent contractor

[edit]

An issue that arises in most companies, especially the ones that are in the gig economy, is the classification of workers. A lot of workers that fulfill gigs are often hired as independent contractors.

To categorize a worker as an independent contractor rather than an employee, an independent contractor must agree with the client on what the finished work product will be and then the contractor controls the means and manner of achieving the desired outcome. Secondly, an independent contractor offers services to the public at large, not just to one business, and is responsible for disbursing payments from the client, paying unreimbursed expenses, and providing his or her own tools to complete the job. Third, the relationship of the parties is often evidenced by a written agreement that specifies that the worker is an independent contractor and is not entitled to employee benefits; the services provided by the worker are not key to the business; and the relationship is not permanent.[4]

As a general principle of employment law, in the United States, there is a difference between an agent and an independent contractor. The default status of a worker is an employee unless specific guidelines are met, which can be determined by the ABC test.[5][6] Thus, clarifying whether someone who performs work is an independent contractor or an employee from the beginning, and treating them accordingly, can save a company from trouble later on.

Provided key circumstances, including ones such as that the worker is paid regularly, follows set hours of work, is supplied with tools from the employer, is closely monitored by the employer, acting on behalf of the employer, only works for one employer at a time, they are considered an employee,[7] and the employer will generally be liable for their actions and be obliged to give them benefits.[8] Similarly, the employer is the owner of any invention created by an employee "hired to invent", even in the absence of an assignment of inventions. In contrast, a company commissioning a work by an independent contractor will not own the copyright unless the company secures either a written contract stating that it is a "work made for hire" or a written assignment of the copyright. In order to stay protected and avoid lawsuits, an employer has to be aware of that distinction.[4]

Employer–worker relationship

[edit]

Employer and managerial control within an organization rests at many levels and has important implications for staff and productivity alike, with control forming the fundamental link between desired outcomes and actual processes. Employers must balance interests such as decreasing wage constraints with a maximization of labor productivity in order to achieve a profitable and productive employment relationship.

Labor acquisition / hiring

[edit]

The main ways for employers to find workers and for people to find employers are via jobs listings in newspapers (via classified advertising) and online, also called job boards. Employers and job seekers also often find each other via professional recruitment consultants which receive a commission from the employer to find, screen and select suitable candidates. However, a study has shown that such consultants may not be reliable when they fail to use established principles in selecting employees.[1] A more traditional approach is with a "Help Wanted" sign in the establishment (usually hung on a window or door[9] or placed on a store counter).[3] Evaluating different employees can be quite laborious but setting up different techniques to analyze their skills to measure their talents within the field can be best through assessments. Employer and potential employee commonly take the additional step of getting to know each other through the process of a job interview.

Training and development

[edit]
Wiki-training with employees of Regional Institute of Culture in Katowice 02

Training and development refers to the employer's effort to equip a newly hired employee with the necessary skills to perform at the job, and to help the employee grow within the organization. An appropriate level of training and development helps to improve employee's job satisfaction.[10]

Remuneration

[edit]

There are many ways that employees are paid, including by hourly wages, by piecework, by yearly salary, or by gratuities (with the latter often being combined with another form of payment). In sales jobs and real estate positions, the employee may be paid a commission, a percentage of the value of the goods or services that they have sold. In some fields and professions (e.g., executive jobs), employees may be eligible for a bonus if they meet certain targets. Some executives and employees may be paid in shares or stock options, a compensation approach that has the added benefit, from the company's point of view, of helping to align the interests of the compensated individual with the performance of the company.

Under the faithless servant doctrine, a doctrine under the laws of a number of states in the United States, and most notably New York State law, an employee who acts unfaithfully towards his employer must forfeit all of the compensation he received during the period of his disloyalty.[11][12][13][14][15]

Employee benefits

[edit]

Employee benefits are various non-wage compensation provided to employees in addition to their wages or salaries. The benefits can include: housing (employer-provided or employer-paid), group insurance (health, dental, life etc.), disability income protection, retirement benefits, daycare, tuition reimbursement, sick leave, vacation (paid and non-paid), social security, profit sharing, funding of education, and other specialized benefits. In some cases, such as with workers employed in remote or isolated regions, the benefits may include meals. Employee benefits can improve the relationship between employee and employer and lowers staff turnover.[16]

Organizational justice

[edit]

Organizational justice is an employee's perception and judgement of employer's treatment in the context of fairness or justice. The resulting actions to influence the employee-employer relationship is also a part of organizational justice.[16]

Workforce organizing

[edit]

Employees can organize into trade or labor unions, which represent the workforce to collectively bargain with the management of organizations about working, and contractual conditions and services.[17]

Ending employment

[edit]

Usually, either an employee or employer may end the relationship at any time, often subject to a certain notice period. This is referred to as at-will employment. The contract between the two parties specifies the responsibilities of each when ending the relationship and may include requirements such as notice periods, severance pay, and security measures.[17] A contract forbidding an employee from leaving their employment, under penalty of a surety bond, is referred to as an employment bond. In some professions, notably teaching, civil servants, university professors, and some orchestra jobs, some employees may have tenure, which means that they cannot be dismissed at will. Another type of termination is a layoff.

Wage labor

[edit]
Worker assembling rebar for a water treatment plant in Mazatlan, Sinaloa, Mexico

Wage labor is the socioeconomic relationship between a worker and an employer, where the worker sells their labor under a formal or informal employment contract. These transactions usually occur in a labor market where wages are market-determined.[10][16] In exchange for the wages paid, the work product generally becomes the undifferentiated property of the employer, except for special cases such as the vesting of intellectual property patents in the United States where patent rights are usually vested in the original personal inventor. A wage laborer is a person whose primary means of income is from the selling of his or her labor in this way.[17]

In modern mixed economies such as that of the OECD countries, it is currently the dominant form of work arrangement. Although most work occurs following this structure, the wage work arrangements of CEOs, professional employees, and professional contract workers are sometimes conflated with class assignments, so that "wage labor" is considered to apply only to unskilled, semi-skilled or manual labor.[18]

Wage slavery

[edit]

Wage labor, as institutionalized under today's market economic systems, has been criticized,[17] especially by socialists,[18][19][20][21] using the pejorative term wage slavery.[22][23] Socialists draw parallels between the trade of labor as a commodity and slavery. Cicero is also known to have suggested such parallels.[24]

The American philosopher John Dewey posited that until "industrial feudalism" is replaced by "industrial democracy", politics will be "the shadow cast on society by big business".[25] Thomas Ferguson has postulated in his investment theory of party competition that the undemocratic nature of economic institutions under capitalism causes elections to become occasions when blocs of investors coalesce and compete to control the state plus cities.[26]

American business theorist Jeffrey Pfeffer posits that contemporary employment practices and employer commonalities in the United States, including toxic working environments, job insecurity, long hours and increased performance pressure from management, are responsible for 120,000 excess deaths annually, making the workplace the fifth leading cause of death in the United States.[27][28]

Employment contract

[edit]

Australia

[edit]

Australian employment has been governed by the Fair Work Act since 2009.[29]

Bangladesh

[edit]

Bangladesh Association of International Recruiting Agencies (BAIRA) is an association of national level with its international reputation of co-operation and welfare of the migrant workforce as well as its approximately 1200 members agencies in collaboration with and support from the Government of Bangladesh.[18]

Canada

[edit]

In the Canadian province of Ontario, formal complaints can be brought to the Ministry of Labour. In the province of Quebec, grievances can be filed with the Commission des normes du travail.[21]

Germany

[edit]

Two of the prominent examples of work and employment contracts in Germany are the Werksvertrag[30][31] or the Arbeitsvertrag,[32][33][34][35] which is a form of Dienstleistungsvertrag (service-oriented contract). An Arbeitsvertrag can also be temporary,[36] whereas a temporary worker is working under Zeitarbeit[37] or Leiharbeit.[38] Another employment setting is Arbeitnehmerüberlassung (ANÜ).[39][40][41]

India

[edit]

India has options for a fixed term contract or a permanent contract. Both contracts are entitled to minimum wages, fixed working hours and social security contributions.[21]

Pakistan

[edit]

Pakistan has no contract Labor, Minimum Wage and Provident Funds Acts. Contract labor in Pakistan must be paid minimum wage and certain facilities are to be provided to labor. However, the Acts are not yet fully implemented.[18]

Philippines

[edit]

In the Philippines, employment is regulated by the Department of Labor and Employment.[42]

Sweden

[edit]

According to Swedish law,[43] there are three types of employment.

  • Test employment (Swedish: Provanställning), where the employer hires a person for a test period of 6 months maximum. The employment can be ended at any time without giving any reason. This type of employment can be offered only once per employer and in employee combination. Usually, a time limited or normal employment is offered after a test employment.[44]
  • Time limited employment (Swedish: Tidsbegränsad anställning). The employer hires a person for a specified time. Usually, they are extended for a new period. Total maximum two years per employer and employee combination, then it automatically counts as a normal employment.
  • Normal employment (Swedish: Tillsvidareanställning / Fast anställning), which has no time limit (except for retirement etc.). It can still be ended for two reasons: personal reason, immediate end of employment only for strong reasons such as crime, or lack of work tasks (Swedish: Arbetsbrist), cancellation of employment, usually because of bad income for the company. There is a cancellation period of 1–6 months, and rules for how to select employees, basically those with shortest employment time shall be cancelled first.[44]

There are no laws about minimum salary in Sweden. Instead, there are agreements between employer organizations and trade unions about minimum salaries, and other employment conditions.

There is a type of employment contract which is common but not regulated in law, and that is Hour employment (Swedish: Timanställning), which can be Normal employment (unlimited), but the work time is unregulated and decided per immediate need basis. The employee is expected to be answering the phone and come to work when needed, e.g. when someone is ill and absent from work. They will receive salary only for actual work time and can in reality be fired for no reason by not being called anymore. This type of contract is common in the public sector.[44]

United Kingdom

[edit]
A call centre worker confined to a small workstation/booth

In the United Kingdom, employment contracts are categorized by the government into the following types:[45]

United States

[edit]
All employees, private industries, by branches

For purposes of U.S. federal income tax withholding, 26 U.S.C. § 3401(c) provides a definition for the term "employee" specific to chapter 24 of the Internal Revenue Code:

Government employment as % of total employment in EU

"For purposes of this chapter, the term "employee" includes an officer, employee, or elected official of the United States, a State, or any political subdivision thereof, or the District of Columbia, or any agency or instrumentality of any one or more of the foregoing. The term "employee" also includes an officer of a corporation."[46] This definition does not exclude all those who are commonly known as 'employees'. "Similarly, Latham's instruction which indicated that under 26 U.S.C. § 3401(c) the category of 'employee' does not include privately employed wage earners is a preposterous reading of the statute. It is obvious that within the context of both statutes the word 'includes' is a term of enlargement not of limitation, and the reference to certain entities or categories is not intended to exclude all others."[47]

Employees are often contrasted with independent contractors, especially when there is dispute as to the worker's entitlement to have matching taxes paid, workers compensation, and unemployment insurance benefits. However, in September 2009, the court case of Brown v. J. Kaz, Inc. ruled that independent contractors are regarded as employees for the purpose of discrimination laws if they work for the employer on a regular basis, and said employer directs the time, place, and manner of employment.[42]

In non-union work environments, in the United States, unjust termination complaints can be brought to the United States Department of Labor.[48]

Labor unions are legally recognized as representatives of workers in many industries in the United States. Their activity today centers on collective bargaining over wages, benefits, and working conditions for their membership, and on representing their members in disputes with management over violations of contract provisions. Larger unions also typically engage in lobbying activities and electioneering at the state and federal level.[42]

Most unions in America are aligned with one of two larger umbrella organizations: the AFL–CIO created in 1955, and the Change to Win Federation which split from the AFL–CIO in 2005. Both advocate policies and legislation on behalf of workers in the United States and Canada, and take an active role in politics. The AFL–CIO is especially concerned with global trade issues.[26]

[edit]

Younger age workers

[edit]
Youth employment rate in the US, i.e. the ratio of employed persons (15–24Y) in an economy to total labor force (15–24Y)[49]

Young workers are at higher risk for occupational injury and face certain occupational hazards at a higher rate; this is generally due to their employment in high-risk industries. For example, in the United States, young people are injured at work at twice the rate of their older counterparts.[50] These workers are also at higher risk for motor vehicle accidents at work, due to less work experience, a lower use of seat belts, and higher rates of distracted driving.[51][52] To mitigate this risk, those under the age of 17 are restricted from certain types of driving, including transporting people and goods under certain circumstances.[51]

High-risk industries for young workers include agriculture, restaurants, waste management, and mining.[50][51] In the United States, those under the age of 18 are restricted from certain jobs that are deemed dangerous under the Fair Labor Standards Act.[51]

Youth employment programs are most effective when they include both theoretical classroom training and hands-on training with work placements.[53]

In the conversation of employment among younger aged workers, youth unemployment has also been monitored. Youth unemployment rates tend to be higher than the adult rates in every country in the world.[54]

Older age workers

[edit]

Those older than the statutory defined retirement age may continue to work, either out of enjoyment or necessity. However, depending on the nature of the job, older workers may need to transition into less-physical forms of work to avoid injury. Working past retirement age also has positive effects, because it gives a sense of purpose and allows people to maintain social networks and activity levels.[55] Older workers are often found to be discriminated against by employers.[56]

Working poor

[edit]
A worker in Dhaka, Bangladesh

Employment is no guarantee of escaping poverty, the International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates that as many as 40% of workers are poor, not earning enough to keep their families above the $2 a day poverty line.[44] For instance, in India most of the chronically poor are wage earners in formal employment, because their jobs are insecure and low paid and offer no chance to accumulate wealth to avoid risks.[44] According to the UNRISD, increasing labor productivity appears to have a negative impact on job creation: in the 1960s, a 1% increase in output per worker was associated with a reduction in employment growth of 0.07%, by the first decade of this century the same productivity increase implies reduced employment growth by 0.54%.[44] Both increased employment opportunities and increased labor productivity (as long as it also translates into higher wages) are needed to tackle poverty. Increases in employment without increases in productivity leads to a rise in the number of "working poor", which is why some experts are now promoting the creation of "quality" and not "quantity" in labor market policies.[44] This approach does highlight how higher productivity has helped reduce poverty in East Asia, but the negative impact is beginning to show.[44] In Vietnam, for example, employment growth has slowed while productivity growth has continued.[44] Furthermore, productivity increases do not always lead to increased wages, as can be seen in the United States, where the gap between productivity and wages has been rising since the 1980s.[44] Oxfam and social scientist Mark Robert Rank have argued that the economy of the United States is failing to provide jobs that can adequately support families.[57][58] According to sociologist Matthew Desmond, the US "offers some of the lowest wages in the industrialized world," which has "swelled the ranks of the working poor, most of whom are thirty-five or older."[59]

Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute argue that there are differences across economic sectors in creating employment that reduces poverty.[44] 24 instances of growth were examined, in which 18 reduced poverty. This study showed that other sectors were just as important in reducing unemployment, such as manufacturing.[44] The services sector is most effective at translating productivity growth into employment growth. Agriculture provides a safety net for jobs and economic buffer when other sectors are struggling.[44]

Growth, employment and poverty[44]
  Number of
episodes
Rising
agricultural
employment
Rising
industrial
employment
Rising
services
employment
Growth episodes associated with falling poverty rates
18
6
10
15
Growth episodes associated with no fall in poverty rates
6
2
3
1

Models of the employment relationship

[edit]

Scholars conceptualize the employment relationship in various ways.[60] A key assumption is the extent to which the employment relationship necessarily includes conflicts of interests between employers and employees, and the form of such conflicts.[61] In economic theorizing, the labor market mediates all such conflicts such that employers and employees who enter into an employment relationship are assumed to find this arrangement in their own self-interest. In human resource management theorizing, employers and employees are assumed to have shared interests (or a unity of interests, hence the label “unitarism”). Any conflicts that exist are seen as a manifestation of poor human resource management policies or interpersonal clashes such as personality conflicts, both of which can and should be managed away. From the perspective of pluralist industrial relations, the employment relationship is characterized by a plurality of stakeholders with legitimate interests (hence the label “pluralism), and some conflicts of interests are seen as inherent in the employment relationship (e.g., wages v. profits). Lastly, the critical paradigm emphasizes antagonistic conflicts of interests between various groups (e.g., the competing capitalist and working classes in a Marxist framework) that are part of a deeper social conflict of unequal power relations. As a result, there are four common models of employment:[62]

  1. Mainstream economics: employment is seen as a mutually advantageous transaction in a free market between self-interested legal and economic equals
  2. Human resource management (unitarism): employment is a long-term partnership of employees and employers with common interests
  3. Pluralist industrial relations: employment is a bargained exchange between stakeholders with some common and some competing economic interests and unequal bargaining power due to imperfect labor markets[44]
  4. Critical industrial relations: employment is an unequal power relation between competing groups that is embedded in and inseparable from systemic inequalities throughout the socio-politico-economic system.

These models are important because they help reveal why individuals hold differing perspectives on human resource management policies, labor unions, and employment regulation.[63] For example, human resource management policies are seen as dictated by the market in the first view, as essential mechanisms for aligning the interests of employees and employers and thereby creating profitable companies in the second view, as insufficient for looking out for workers’ interests in the third view, and as manipulative managerial tools for shaping the ideology and structure of the workplace in the fourth view.[64]

Academic literature

[edit]

Literature on the employment impact of economic growth and on how growth is associated with employment at a macro, sector and industry level was aggregated in 2013.[65]

Researchers found evidence to suggest growth in manufacturing and services have good impact on employment. They found GDP growth on employment in agriculture to be limited, but that value-added growth had a relatively larger impact.[44] The impact on job creation by industries/economic activities as well as the extent of the body of evidence and the key studies. For extractives, they again found extensive evidence suggesting growth in the sector has limited impact on employment. In textiles, however, although evidence was low, studies suggest growth there positively contributed to job creation. In agri-business and food processing, they found impact growth to be positive.[65]

They found that most available literature focuses on OECD and middle-income countries somewhat, where economic growth impact has been shown to be positive on employment. The researchers didn't find sufficient evidence to conclude any impact of growth on employment in LDCs despite some pointing to the positive impact, others point to limitations. They recommended that complementary policies are necessary to ensure economic growth's positive impact on LDC employment. With trade, industry and investment, they only found limited evidence of positive impact on employment from industrial and investment policies and for others, while large bodies of evidence does exist, the exact impact remains contested.[65]

Researchers have also explored the relationship between employment and illicit activities. Using evidence from Africa, a research team found that a program for Liberian ex-fighters reduced work hours on illicit activities. The employment program also reduced interest in mercenary work in nearby wars. The study concludes that while the use of capital inputs or cash payments for peaceful work created a reduction in illicit activities, the impact of training alone is rather low.[66]

Globalization and employment relations

[edit]

The balance of economic efficiency and social equity is the ultimate debate in the field of employment relations.[67] By meeting the needs of the employer; generating profits to establish and maintain economic efficiency; whilst maintaining a balance with the employee and creating social equity that benefits the worker so that he/she can fund and enjoy healthy living; proves to be a continuous revolving issue in westernized societies.[67]

Globalization has affected these issues by creating certain economic factors that disallow or allow various employment issues. Economist Edward Lee (1996) studies the effects of globalization and summarizes the four major points of concern that affect employment relations:

  1. International competition, from the newly industrialized countries, will cause unemployment growth and increased wage disparity for unskilled workers in industrialized countries. Imports from low-wage countries exert pressure on the manufacturing sector in industrialized countries and foreign direct investment (FDI) is attracted away from the industrialized nations, towards low-waged countries.[67]
  2. Economic liberalization will result in unemployment and wage inequality in developing countries. This happens as job losses in uncompetitive industries outstrip job opportunities in new industries.
  3. Workers will be forced to accept worsening wages and conditions, as a global labor market results in a “race to the bottom”. Increased international competition creates a pressure to reduce the wages and conditions of workers.[67]
  4. Globalization reduces the autonomy of the nation state. Capital is increasingly mobile and the ability of the state to regulate economic activity is reduced.

What also results from Lee's (1996) findings is that in industrialized countries an average of almost 70 per cent of workers are employed in the service sector, most of which consists of non-tradable activities. As a result, workers are forced to become more skilled and develop sought after trades, or find other means of survival. Ultimately this is a result of changes and trends of employment, an evolving workforce, and globalization that is represented by a more skilled and increasing highly diverse labor force, that are growing in non standard forms of employment (Markey, R. et al. 2006).[67]

Alternatives

[edit]

Subcultures

[edit]

Various youth subcultures have been associated with not working, such as the hippie subculture in the 1960s and 1970s (which endorsed the idea of "dropping out" of society) and the punk subculture.

Post-secondary education

[edit]

One of the alternatives to work is engaging in post-secondary education at a college, university or professional school. One of the major costs of obtaining a post-secondary education is the opportunity cost of forgone wages due to not working. At times when jobs are hard to find, such as during recessions, unemployed individuals may decide to get post-secondary education, because there is less of an opportunity cost.

Social assistance

[edit]

In some countries, individuals who are not working can receive social assistance support (e.g., welfare or food stamps) to enable them to rent housing, buy food, repair or replace household goods, maintenance of children and observe social customs that require financial expenditure.

Volunteerism

[edit]

Workers who are not paid wages, such as volunteers who perform tasks for charities, hospitals or not-for-profit organizations, are generally not considered employed. One exception to this is an internship, an employment situation in which the worker receives training or experience (and possibly college credit) as the chief form of compensation.[68]

Indentured servitude and slavery

[edit]

Those who work under obligation for the purpose of fulfilling a debt, such as indentured servants, or as property of the person or entity they work for, such as slaves, do not receive pay for their services and are not considered employed. Some historians[which?] suggest that slavery is older than employment, but both arrangements have existed for all recorded history.[citation needed] Indentured servitude and slavery are not considered compatible with human rights or with democracy.[68]

Self-employment

[edit]
 

Self-employment is the state of working for oneself rather than an employer. Tax authorities will generally view a person as self-employed if the person chooses to be recognised as such or if the person is generating income for which a tax return needs to be filed. In the real world, the critical issue for tax authorities is not whether a person is engaged in business activity (called trading even when referring to the provision of a service) but whether the activity is profitable and therefore potentially taxable. In other words, the trading is likely to be ignored if there is no profit, so occasional and hobby- or enthusiast-based economic activity is generally ignored by tax authorities. Self-employed people are usually classified as a sole proprietor (or sole trader), independent contractor, or as a member of a partnership.

Self-employed people generally find their own work rather than being provided with work by an employer and instead earn income from a profession, a trade, or a business that they operate. In some countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, the authorities are placing more emphasis on clarifying whether an individual is self-employed or engaged in disguised employment, in other words pretending to be in a contractual intra-business relationship to hide what is in fact an employer-employee relationship.

Statistics

[edit]

See also

[edit]

Notes and references

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Dakin, Stephen; Armstrong, J. Scott (1989). "Predicting job performance: A comparison of expert opinion and research findings" (PDF). International Journal of Forecasting. 5 (2): 187–94. doi:10.1016/0169-2070(89)90086-1. S2CID 14567834.
  2. ^ Archer, Richard; Borthwick, Kerry; Travers, Michelle; Ruschena, Leo (2017). WHS: A Management Guide (4th ed.). Cengage Learning Australia. pp. 30–31. ISBN 978-0-17-027079-3. Retrieved 2016-03-30. The most significant definitions are 'person conducting a business or undertaking' (PCBU). 'worker' and 'workplace'. [...] 'PCBU' is a wider ranging term than 'employer', though this will be what most people understand by it.
  3. ^ a b Robert A. Ristau (2010). Intro to Business. Cengage Learning. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-538-74066-1.
  4. ^ a b Bagley, Constance E (2017). The entrepreneur's guide to law and strategy. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-285-42849-9. OCLC 953710378.
  5. ^ "ABC test". Legal Information Institute (LII). Retrieved 2022-10-06.
  6. ^ Dynamex Operations West, Inc. v. Superior Court, vol. 4, April 30, 2018, p. 903, retrieved March 30, 2020
  7. ^ "Overview of Independent Contractor Guidelines". Findlaw. Retrieved 2020-03-30.
  8. ^ "Employer Liability for Employee Conduct". Findlaw. Retrieved 2020-03-30.
  9. ^ J. Mayhew Wainwright (1910). Report to the Legislature of the State of New York by the Commission appointed under Chapter 518 of the laws of 1909 to inquire into the question of employers' liability and other matters (Report). J. B. Lyon Company. pp. 11, 50, 144.
  10. ^ a b Deakin, Simon; Wilkinson, Frank (2005). The Law of the Labour Market (PDF). Oxford University Press.
  11. ^ Glynn, Timothy P.; Arnow-Richman, Rachel S.; Sullivan, Charles A. (2019). Employment Law: Private Ordering and Its Limitations. Wolters Kluwer Law & Business. ISBN 978-1-5438-0106-4 – via Google Books.
  12. ^ Annual Institute on Employment Law. Vol. 2. Practising Law Institute. 2004 – via Google Books.
  13. ^ New York Jurisprudence 2d. Vol. 52. West Group. 2009 – via Google Books.
  14. ^ Labor Cases. Vol. 158. Commerce Clearing House. 2009 – via Google Books.
  15. ^ Ellie Kaufman (May 19, 2018). "Met Opera sues former conductor for $5.8 million over sexual misconduct allegations". CNN.
  16. ^ a b c Marx, Karl (1847). "Chapter 2". Wage Labour and Capital.
  17. ^ a b c d Ellerman 1992.
  18. ^ a b c d Ostergaard 1997, p. 133.
  19. ^ Thompson 1966, p. 599.
  20. ^ Thompson 1966, p. 912.
  21. ^ a b c Lazonick, William (1990). Competitive Advantage on the Shop Floor. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-674-15416-2.
  22. ^ "wage slave". merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 4 March 2013.
  23. ^ "wage slave". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d.
  24. ^ "...vulgar are the means of livelihood of all hired workmen whom we pay for mere manual labour, not for artistic skill; for in their case the very wage they receive is a pledge of their slavery." – De Officiis [1]
  25. ^ "As long as politics is the shadow cast on society by big business, the attenuation of the shadow will not change the substance", in "The Need for a New Party" (1931), Later Works 6, p163
  26. ^ a b Ferguson 1995.
  27. ^ Pfeffer, Jeffrey (2018). Dying for a Paycheck: How Modern Management Harms Employee Health and Company Performance – and What We Can Do About It. HarperBusiness. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-06-280092-3.
  28. ^ McGregor, Jena (March 22, 2018). "This professor says the workplace is the fifth leading cause of death in the U.S." The Washington Post. Retrieved June 7, 2023.
  29. ^ "House of Reps seals 'death' of WorkChoices". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 2008-03-19. Retrieved 2014-02-15.
  30. ^ Gross, Willi; Söhnlein, Walter (1990), Gross, Willi; Söhnlein, Walter (eds.), "Werkvertrag", Bürgerliches Recht 3: Fall · Systematik · Lösung · Schuldrecht · Besonderer Teil. Kauf und Tausch · Schenkung · Miete und Pacht · Leihe · Verwahrung · Darlehen · Bürgschaft · Dienst- und Werkvertrag (in German), Wiesbaden: Gabler Verlag, pp. 127–135, doi:10.1007/978-3-322-99402-8_13, ISBN 978-3-322-99402-8, retrieved 2021-04-11
  31. ^ "§ 631 BGB – Einzelnorm". www.gesetze-im-internet.de. Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  32. ^ "Arbeitsrecht". Recht – Schnell Erfasst. 2006. doi:10.1007/3-540-32544-1. ISBN 3-540-32541-7.
  33. ^ Höhl, Rebekka (2017). "Kollegen anstellen: Was beim Arbeitsvertrag zu beachten ist!". Uro-News (in German). 21: 45. doi:10.1007/s00092-017-1358-0.
  34. ^ "§ 611a BGB – Einzelnorm". www.gesetze-im-internet.de. Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  35. ^ "Links zu Musterverträgen". IHK Frankfurt am Main (in German). Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  36. ^ "Arbeitsvertrag (Befristet)". IHK Frankfurt am Main (in German). Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  37. ^ "Zeitarbeit: Infos und Stellen | Bundesagentur für Arbeit". www.arbeitsagentur.de. Retrieved 2024-05-17.
  38. ^ "Zeitarbeit = Leiharbeit: häufige Fragen – Bundesagentur für Arbeit". www.arbeitsagentur.de. Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  39. ^ Auer, M.; Egglmeier-Schmolke, B. (2009-10-01). "Arbeitnehmerüberlassung aus Deutschland im Bereich des Baugewerbes". Baurechtliche Blätter (in German). 12 (5): 199. doi:10.1007/s00738-009-0718-x. ISSN 1613-7612. S2CID 176538819.
  40. ^ Stieglmeier, Jacqueline (2005), Hök, Götz-Sebastian (ed.), "Internationales Arbeitsrecht", Handbuch des internationalen und ausländischen Baurechts (in German), Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 361–368, doi:10.1007/3-540-27450-2_24, ISBN 978-3-540-27450-6, retrieved 2021-04-11
  41. ^ "AÜG – nichtamtliches Inhaltsverzeichnis". www.gesetze-im-internet.de. Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  42. ^ a b c d "Brown v. J. Kaz, Inc., No. 08-2713 (3d Cir. Sept. 11, 2009)". Archived from the original on 2012-03-23. Retrieved 2010-01-23.
  43. ^ Lag om anställningsskydd (1982:80)
  44. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Claire Melamed, Renate Hartwig and Ursula Grant 2011. Jobs, growth and poverty: what do we know, what don't we know, what should we know? Archived May 20, 2011, at the Wayback Machine London: Overseas Development Institute
  45. ^ "Contract types and employer responsibilities". gov.uk. Retrieved 21 May 2014.
  46. ^ 26 U.S.C. § 3401(c)
  47. ^ United States v. Latham, 754 F.2d 747, 750 (7th Cir. 1985).
  48. ^ "Termination". United States Department of Labor. Archived from the original on 27 September 2012. Retrieved 27 September 2012.
  49. ^ "Bluenomics". Archived from the original on 2014-11-17.
  50. ^ a b "Young Worker Safety and Health". www.cdc.gov. CDC NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic. Retrieved 2015-06-15.
  51. ^ a b c d "Work-Related Motor Vehicle Crashes" (PDF). NIOSH Publication 2013-153. NIOSH. September 2013.
  52. ^ "Work-Related Motor Vehicle Crashes: Preventing Injury to Young Drivers" (PDF). NIOSH Publication 2013-152. NIOSH. September 2013.
  53. ^ Joseph Holden, Youth employment programmes – What can be learnt from international experience with youth employment programmes? Economic and private sector professional evidence and applied knowledge services https://partnerplatform.org/?fza26891
  54. ^ Pastore, Francesco (2018-01-23). "Why is youth unemployment so high and different across countries?". IZA World of Labor. doi:10.15185/izawol.420.
  55. ^ Chosewood, L. Casey (May 3, 2011). "When It Comes to Work, How Old Is Too Old?". NIOSH: Workplace Safety and Health. Medscape and NIOSH.
  56. ^ Baert, Stijn (February 20, 2016). "Getting Grey Hairs in the Labour Market: An Alternative Experiment on Age Discrimination". Journal of Economic Psychology. 57: 86–101. doi:10.1016/j.joep.2016.10.002. hdl:10419/114164. S2CID 38265879.
  57. ^ Henderson, Kaitlyn (May 3, 2023). "Where hard work doesn't pay off: An index of US labor policies compared to peer nations". Oxfam. Retrieved February 18, 2024. The US is falling drastically behind similar countries in mandating adequate wages, protections, and rights for millions of workers and their families. The wealthiest country in the world is near the bottom of every dimension of this index.
  58. ^ Rank, Mark Robert (2023). The Poverty Paradox: Understanding Economic Hardship Amid American Prosperity. Oxford University Press. pp. 4, 121. ISBN 978-0190212636. The tendency of our free market economy has been to produce a growing number of jobs that will no longer support a family. In addition, the basic nature of capitalism ensures that unemployment exists at modest levels. Both of these directly result in a shortage of economic opportunities in American society. In addition, the absence of social supports stems from failings at the political and policy levels. The United States has traditionally lacked the political desire to put in place effective policies and programs that would support the economically vulnerable. Structural failing at the economic and political levels have therefore produced a lack of opportunities and supports, resulting in high rates of American poverty.
  59. ^ Desmond, Matthew (2023). Poverty, by America. Crown Publishing Group. p. 62. ISBN 9780593239919.
  60. ^ Kaufman, Bruce E. (2004) Theoretical Perspectives on Work and the Employment Relationship, Industrial Relations Research Association.
  61. ^ Fox, Alan (1974) Beyond Contract: Work, Power and Trust Relations, Farber and Farber.
  62. ^ Budd, John W. and Bhave, Devasheesh (2008) "Values, Ideologies, and Frames of Reference in Industrial Relations," in Sage Handbook of Industrial Relations, Sage.
  63. ^ Befort, Stephen F. and Budd, John W. (2009) Invisible Hands, Invisible Objectives: Bringing Workplace Law and Public Policy Into Focus, Stanford University Press.
  64. ^ Budd, John W. and Bhave, Devasheesh (2010) "The Employment Relationship," in Sage Handbook of Handbook of Human Resource Management, Sage.
  65. ^ a b c Yurendra Basnett and Ritwika Sen, What do empirical studies say about economic growth and job creation in developing countries? Economic and private sector professional evidence and applied knowledge services https://partnerplatform.org/?7ljwndv4
  66. ^ Blattman, Christopher; Annan, Jeannie (2016-02-01). "Can Employment Reduce Lawlessness and Rebellion? A Field Experiment with High-Risk Men in a Fragile State". American Political Science Review. 110 (1): 1–17. doi:10.1017/S0003055415000520. ISSN 0003-0554. S2CID 229170512.
  67. ^ a b c d e Budd, John W. (2004) Employment with a Human Face: Balancing Efficiency, Equity, and Voice, Cornell University Press.
  68. ^ a b Rayasam, Renuka (24 April 2008). "Why Workplace Democracy Can Be Good Business". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 16 August 2010.

General bibliography

[edit]
[edit]

 

Employment is a relationship between two parties regulating the provision of paid labour services. Usually based on a contract, one party, the employer, which might be a corporation, a not-for-profit organization, a co-operative, or any other entity, pays the other, the employee, in return for carrying out assigned work.[1] Employees work in return for wages, which can be paid on the basis of an hourly rate, by piecework or an annual salary, depending on the type of work an employee does, the prevailing conditions of the sector and the bargaining power between the parties. Employees in some sectors may receive gratuities, bonus payments or stock options. In some types of employment, employees may receive benefits in addition to payment. Benefits may include health insurance, housing, and disability insurance. Employment is typically governed by employment laws, organization or legal contracts.

Employees and employers

[edit]

An employee contributes labour and expertise to an endeavor of an employer or of a person conducting a business or undertaking (PCB)[2] and is usually hired to perform specific duties which are packaged into a job. In a corporate context, an employee is a person who is hired to provide services to a company on a regular basis in exchange for compensation and who does not provide these services as part of an independent business.[3]

Independent contractor

[edit]

An issue that arises in most companies, especially the ones that are in the gig economy, is the classification of workers. A lot of workers that fulfill gigs are often hired as independent contractors.

To categorize a worker as an independent contractor rather than an employee, an independent contractor must agree with the client on what the finished work product will be and then the contractor controls the means and manner of achieving the desired outcome. Secondly, an independent contractor offers services to the public at large, not just to one business, and is responsible for disbursing payments from the client, paying unreimbursed expenses, and providing his or her own tools to complete the job. Third, the relationship of the parties is often evidenced by a written agreement that specifies that the worker is an independent contractor and is not entitled to employee benefits; the services provided by the worker are not key to the business; and the relationship is not permanent.[4]

As a general principle of employment law, in the United States, there is a difference between an agent and an independent contractor. The default status of a worker is an employee unless specific guidelines are met, which can be determined by the ABC test.[5][6] Thus, clarifying whether someone who performs work is an independent contractor or an employee from the beginning, and treating them accordingly, can save a company from trouble later on.

Provided key circumstances, including ones such as that the worker is paid regularly, follows set hours of work, is supplied with tools from the employer, is closely monitored by the employer, acting on behalf of the employer, only works for one employer at a time, they are considered an employee,[7] and the employer will generally be liable for their actions and be obliged to give them benefits.[8] Similarly, the employer is the owner of any invention created by an employee "hired to invent", even in the absence of an assignment of inventions. In contrast, a company commissioning a work by an independent contractor will not own the copyright unless the company secures either a written contract stating that it is a "work made for hire" or a written assignment of the copyright. In order to stay protected and avoid lawsuits, an employer has to be aware of that distinction.[4]

Employer–worker relationship

[edit]

Employer and managerial control within an organization rests at many levels and has important implications for staff and productivity alike, with control forming the fundamental link between desired outcomes and actual processes. Employers must balance interests such as decreasing wage constraints with a maximization of labor productivity in order to achieve a profitable and productive employment relationship.

Labor acquisition / hiring

[edit]

The main ways for employers to find workers and for people to find employers are via jobs listings in newspapers (via classified advertising) and online, also called job boards. Employers and job seekers also often find each other via professional recruitment consultants which receive a commission from the employer to find, screen and select suitable candidates. However, a study has shown that such consultants may not be reliable when they fail to use established principles in selecting employees.[1] A more traditional approach is with a "Help Wanted" sign in the establishment (usually hung on a window or door[9] or placed on a store counter).[3] Evaluating different employees can be quite laborious but setting up different techniques to analyze their skills to measure their talents within the field can be best through assessments. Employer and potential employee commonly take the additional step of getting to know each other through the process of a job interview.

Training and development

[edit]
Wiki-training with employees of Regional Institute of Culture in Katowice 02

Training and development refers to the employer's effort to equip a newly hired employee with the necessary skills to perform at the job, and to help the employee grow within the organization. An appropriate level of training and development helps to improve employee's job satisfaction.[10]

Remuneration

[edit]

There are many ways that employees are paid, including by hourly wages, by piecework, by yearly salary, or by gratuities (with the latter often being combined with another form of payment). In sales jobs and real estate positions, the employee may be paid a commission, a percentage of the value of the goods or services that they have sold. In some fields and professions (e.g., executive jobs), employees may be eligible for a bonus if they meet certain targets. Some executives and employees may be paid in shares or stock options, a compensation approach that has the added benefit, from the company's point of view, of helping to align the interests of the compensated individual with the performance of the company.

Under the faithless servant doctrine, a doctrine under the laws of a number of states in the United States, and most notably New York State law, an employee who acts unfaithfully towards his employer must forfeit all of the compensation he received during the period of his disloyalty.[11][12][13][14][15]

Employee benefits

[edit]

Employee benefits are various non-wage compensation provided to employees in addition to their wages or salaries. The benefits can include: housing (employer-provided or employer-paid), group insurance (health, dental, life etc.), disability income protection, retirement benefits, daycare, tuition reimbursement, sick leave, vacation (paid and non-paid), social security, profit sharing, funding of education, and other specialized benefits. In some cases, such as with workers employed in remote or isolated regions, the benefits may include meals. Employee benefits can improve the relationship between employee and employer and lowers staff turnover.[16]

Organizational justice

[edit]

Organizational justice is an employee's perception and judgement of employer's treatment in the context of fairness or justice. The resulting actions to influence the employee-employer relationship is also a part of organizational justice.[16]

Workforce organizing

[edit]

Employees can organize into trade or labor unions, which represent the workforce to collectively bargain with the management of organizations about working, and contractual conditions and services.[17]

Ending employment

[edit]

Usually, either an employee or employer may end the relationship at any time, often subject to a certain notice period. This is referred to as at-will employment. The contract between the two parties specifies the responsibilities of each when ending the relationship and may include requirements such as notice periods, severance pay, and security measures.[17] A contract forbidding an employee from leaving their employment, under penalty of a surety bond, is referred to as an employment bond. In some professions, notably teaching, civil servants, university professors, and some orchestra jobs, some employees may have tenure, which means that they cannot be dismissed at will. Another type of termination is a layoff.

Wage labor

[edit]
Worker assembling rebar for a water treatment plant in Mazatlan, Sinaloa, Mexico

Wage labor is the socioeconomic relationship between a worker and an employer, where the worker sells their labor under a formal or informal employment contract. These transactions usually occur in a labor market where wages are market-determined.[10][16] In exchange for the wages paid, the work product generally becomes the undifferentiated property of the employer, except for special cases such as the vesting of intellectual property patents in the United States where patent rights are usually vested in the original personal inventor. A wage laborer is a person whose primary means of income is from the selling of his or her labor in this way.[17]

In modern mixed economies such as that of the OECD countries, it is currently the dominant form of work arrangement. Although most work occurs following this structure, the wage work arrangements of CEOs, professional employees, and professional contract workers are sometimes conflated with class assignments, so that "wage labor" is considered to apply only to unskilled, semi-skilled or manual labor.[18]

Wage slavery

[edit]

Wage labor, as institutionalized under today's market economic systems, has been criticized,[17] especially by socialists,[18][19][20][21] using the pejorative term wage slavery.[22][23] Socialists draw parallels between the trade of labor as a commodity and slavery. Cicero is also known to have suggested such parallels.[24]

The American philosopher John Dewey posited that until "industrial feudalism" is replaced by "industrial democracy", politics will be "the shadow cast on society by big business".[25] Thomas Ferguson has postulated in his investment theory of party competition that the undemocratic nature of economic institutions under capitalism causes elections to become occasions when blocs of investors coalesce and compete to control the state plus cities.[26]

American business theorist Jeffrey Pfeffer posits that contemporary employment practices and employer commonalities in the United States, including toxic working environments, job insecurity, long hours and increased performance pressure from management, are responsible for 120,000 excess deaths annually, making the workplace the fifth leading cause of death in the United States.[27][28]

Employment contract

[edit]

Australia

[edit]

Australian employment has been governed by the Fair Work Act since 2009.[29]

Bangladesh

[edit]

Bangladesh Association of International Recruiting Agencies (BAIRA) is an association of national level with its international reputation of co-operation and welfare of the migrant workforce as well as its approximately 1200 members agencies in collaboration with and support from the Government of Bangladesh.[18]

Canada

[edit]

In the Canadian province of Ontario, formal complaints can be brought to the Ministry of Labour. In the province of Quebec, grievances can be filed with the Commission des normes du travail.[21]

Germany

[edit]

Two of the prominent examples of work and employment contracts in Germany are the Werksvertrag[30][31] or the Arbeitsvertrag,[32][33][34][35] which is a form of Dienstleistungsvertrag (service-oriented contract). An Arbeitsvertrag can also be temporary,[36] whereas a temporary worker is working under Zeitarbeit[37] or Leiharbeit.[38] Another employment setting is Arbeitnehmerüberlassung (ANÜ).[39][40][41]

India

[edit]

India has options for a fixed term contract or a permanent contract. Both contracts are entitled to minimum wages, fixed working hours and social security contributions.[21]

Pakistan

[edit]

Pakistan has no contract Labor, Minimum Wage and Provident Funds Acts. Contract labor in Pakistan must be paid minimum wage and certain facilities are to be provided to labor. However, the Acts are not yet fully implemented.[18]

Philippines

[edit]

In the Philippines, employment is regulated by the Department of Labor and Employment.[42]

Sweden

[edit]

According to Swedish law,[43] there are three types of employment.

  • Test employment (Swedish: Provanställning), where the employer hires a person for a test period of 6 months maximum. The employment can be ended at any time without giving any reason. This type of employment can be offered only once per employer and in employee combination. Usually, a time limited or normal employment is offered after a test employment.[44]
  • Time limited employment (Swedish: Tidsbegränsad anställning). The employer hires a person for a specified time. Usually, they are extended for a new period. Total maximum two years per employer and employee combination, then it automatically counts as a normal employment.
  • Normal employment (Swedish: Tillsvidareanställning / Fast anställning), which has no time limit (except for retirement etc.). It can still be ended for two reasons: personal reason, immediate end of employment only for strong reasons such as crime, or lack of work tasks (Swedish: Arbetsbrist), cancellation of employment, usually because of bad income for the company. There is a cancellation period of 1–6 months, and rules for how to select employees, basically those with shortest employment time shall be cancelled first.[44]

There are no laws about minimum salary in Sweden. Instead, there are agreements between employer organizations and trade unions about minimum salaries, and other employment conditions.

There is a type of employment contract which is common but not regulated in law, and that is Hour employment (Swedish: Timanställning), which can be Normal employment (unlimited), but the work time is unregulated and decided per immediate need basis. The employee is expected to be answering the phone and come to work when needed, e.g. when someone is ill and absent from work. They will receive salary only for actual work time and can in reality be fired for no reason by not being called anymore. This type of contract is common in the public sector.[44]

United Kingdom

[edit]
A call centre worker confined to a small workstation/booth

In the United Kingdom, employment contracts are categorized by the government into the following types:[45]

United States

[edit]
All employees, private industries, by branches

For purposes of U.S. federal income tax withholding, 26 U.S.C. § 3401(c) provides a definition for the term "employee" specific to chapter 24 of the Internal Revenue Code:

Government employment as % of total employment in EU

"For purposes of this chapter, the term "employee" includes an officer, employee, or elected official of the United States, a State, or any political subdivision thereof, or the District of Columbia, or any agency or instrumentality of any one or more of the foregoing. The term "employee" also includes an officer of a corporation."[46] This definition does not exclude all those who are commonly known as 'employees'. "Similarly, Latham's instruction which indicated that under 26 U.S.C. § 3401(c) the category of 'employee' does not include privately employed wage earners is a preposterous reading of the statute. It is obvious that within the context of both statutes the word 'includes' is a term of enlargement not of limitation, and the reference to certain entities or categories is not intended to exclude all others."[47]

Employees are often contrasted with independent contractors, especially when there is dispute as to the worker's entitlement to have matching taxes paid, workers compensation, and unemployment insurance benefits. However, in September 2009, the court case of Brown v. J. Kaz, Inc. ruled that independent contractors are regarded as employees for the purpose of discrimination laws if they work for the employer on a regular basis, and said employer directs the time, place, and manner of employment.[42]

In non-union work environments, in the United States, unjust termination complaints can be brought to the United States Department of Labor.[48]

Labor unions are legally recognized as representatives of workers in many industries in the United States. Their activity today centers on collective bargaining over wages, benefits, and working conditions for their membership, and on representing their members in disputes with management over violations of contract provisions. Larger unions also typically engage in lobbying activities and electioneering at the state and federal level.[42]

Most unions in America are aligned with one of two larger umbrella organizations: the AFL–CIO created in 1955, and the Change to Win Federation which split from the AFL–CIO in 2005. Both advocate policies and legislation on behalf of workers in the United States and Canada, and take an active role in politics. The AFL–CIO is especially concerned with global trade issues.[26]

[edit]

Younger age workers

[edit]
Youth employment rate in the US, i.e. the ratio of employed persons (15–24Y) in an economy to total labor force (15–24Y)[49]

Young workers are at higher risk for occupational injury and face certain occupational hazards at a higher rate; this is generally due to their employment in high-risk industries. For example, in the United States, young people are injured at work at twice the rate of their older counterparts.[50] These workers are also at higher risk for motor vehicle accidents at work, due to less work experience, a lower use of seat belts, and higher rates of distracted driving.[51][52] To mitigate this risk, those under the age of 17 are restricted from certain types of driving, including transporting people and goods under certain circumstances.[51]

High-risk industries for young workers include agriculture, restaurants, waste management, and mining.[50][51] In the United States, those under the age of 18 are restricted from certain jobs that are deemed dangerous under the Fair Labor Standards Act.[51]

Youth employment programs are most effective when they include both theoretical classroom training and hands-on training with work placements.[53]

In the conversation of employment among younger aged workers, youth unemployment has also been monitored. Youth unemployment rates tend to be higher than the adult rates in every country in the world.[54]

Older age workers

[edit]

Those older than the statutory defined retirement age may continue to work, either out of enjoyment or necessity. However, depending on the nature of the job, older workers may need to transition into less-physical forms of work to avoid injury. Working past retirement age also has positive effects, because it gives a sense of purpose and allows people to maintain social networks and activity levels.[55] Older workers are often found to be discriminated against by employers.[56]

Working poor

[edit]
A worker in Dhaka, Bangladesh

Employment is no guarantee of escaping poverty, the International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates that as many as 40% of workers are poor, not earning enough to keep their families above the $2 a day poverty line.[44] For instance, in India most of the chronically poor are wage earners in formal employment, because their jobs are insecure and low paid and offer no chance to accumulate wealth to avoid risks.[44] According to the UNRISD, increasing labor productivity appears to have a negative impact on job creation: in the 1960s, a 1% increase in output per worker was associated with a reduction in employment growth of 0.07%, by the first decade of this century the same productivity increase implies reduced employment growth by 0.54%.[44] Both increased employment opportunities and increased labor productivity (as long as it also translates into higher wages) are needed to tackle poverty. Increases in employment without increases in productivity leads to a rise in the number of "working poor", which is why some experts are now promoting the creation of "quality" and not "quantity" in labor market policies.[44] This approach does highlight how higher productivity has helped reduce poverty in East Asia, but the negative impact is beginning to show.[44] In Vietnam, for example, employment growth has slowed while productivity growth has continued.[44] Furthermore, productivity increases do not always lead to increased wages, as can be seen in the United States, where the gap between productivity and wages has been rising since the 1980s.[44] Oxfam and social scientist Mark Robert Rank have argued that the economy of the United States is failing to provide jobs that can adequately support families.[57][58] According to sociologist Matthew Desmond, the US "offers some of the lowest wages in the industrialized world," which has "swelled the ranks of the working poor, most of whom are thirty-five or older."[59]

Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute argue that there are differences across economic sectors in creating employment that reduces poverty.[44] 24 instances of growth were examined, in which 18 reduced poverty. This study showed that other sectors were just as important in reducing unemployment, such as manufacturing.[44] The services sector is most effective at translating productivity growth into employment growth. Agriculture provides a safety net for jobs and economic buffer when other sectors are struggling.[44]

Growth, employment and poverty[44]
  Number of
episodes
Rising
agricultural
employment
Rising
industrial
employment
Rising
services
employment
Growth episodes associated with falling poverty rates
18
6
10
15
Growth episodes associated with no fall in poverty rates
6
2
3
1

Models of the employment relationship

[edit]

Scholars conceptualize the employment relationship in various ways.[60] A key assumption is the extent to which the employment relationship necessarily includes conflicts of interests between employers and employees, and the form of such conflicts.[61] In economic theorizing, the labor market mediates all such conflicts such that employers and employees who enter into an employment relationship are assumed to find this arrangement in their own self-interest. In human resource management theorizing, employers and employees are assumed to have shared interests (or a unity of interests, hence the label “unitarism”). Any conflicts that exist are seen as a manifestation of poor human resource management policies or interpersonal clashes such as personality conflicts, both of which can and should be managed away. From the perspective of pluralist industrial relations, the employment relationship is characterized by a plurality of stakeholders with legitimate interests (hence the label “pluralism), and some conflicts of interests are seen as inherent in the employment relationship (e.g., wages v. profits). Lastly, the critical paradigm emphasizes antagonistic conflicts of interests between various groups (e.g., the competing capitalist and working classes in a Marxist framework) that are part of a deeper social conflict of unequal power relations. As a result, there are four common models of employment:[62]

  1. Mainstream economics: employment is seen as a mutually advantageous transaction in a free market between self-interested legal and economic equals
  2. Human resource management (unitarism): employment is a long-term partnership of employees and employers with common interests
  3. Pluralist industrial relations: employment is a bargained exchange between stakeholders with some common and some competing economic interests and unequal bargaining power due to imperfect labor markets[44]
  4. Critical industrial relations: employment is an unequal power relation between competing groups that is embedded in and inseparable from systemic inequalities throughout the socio-politico-economic system.

These models are important because they help reveal why individuals hold differing perspectives on human resource management policies, labor unions, and employment regulation.[63] For example, human resource management policies are seen as dictated by the market in the first view, as essential mechanisms for aligning the interests of employees and employers and thereby creating profitable companies in the second view, as insufficient for looking out for workers’ interests in the third view, and as manipulative managerial tools for shaping the ideology and structure of the workplace in the fourth view.[64]

Academic literature

[edit]

Literature on the employment impact of economic growth and on how growth is associated with employment at a macro, sector and industry level was aggregated in 2013.[65]

Researchers found evidence to suggest growth in manufacturing and services have good impact on employment. They found GDP growth on employment in agriculture to be limited, but that value-added growth had a relatively larger impact.[44] The impact on job creation by industries/economic activities as well as the extent of the body of evidence and the key studies. For extractives, they again found extensive evidence suggesting growth in the sector has limited impact on employment. In textiles, however, although evidence was low, studies suggest growth there positively contributed to job creation. In agri-business and food processing, they found impact growth to be positive.[65]

They found that most available literature focuses on OECD and middle-income countries somewhat, where economic growth impact has been shown to be positive on employment. The researchers didn't find sufficient evidence to conclude any impact of growth on employment in LDCs despite some pointing to the positive impact, others point to limitations. They recommended that complementary policies are necessary to ensure economic growth's positive impact on LDC employment. With trade, industry and investment, they only found limited evidence of positive impact on employment from industrial and investment policies and for others, while large bodies of evidence does exist, the exact impact remains contested.[65]

Researchers have also explored the relationship between employment and illicit activities. Using evidence from Africa, a research team found that a program for Liberian ex-fighters reduced work hours on illicit activities. The employment program also reduced interest in mercenary work in nearby wars. The study concludes that while the use of capital inputs or cash payments for peaceful work created a reduction in illicit activities, the impact of training alone is rather low.[66]

Globalization and employment relations

[edit]

The balance of economic efficiency and social equity is the ultimate debate in the field of employment relations.[67] By meeting the needs of the employer; generating profits to establish and maintain economic efficiency; whilst maintaining a balance with the employee and creating social equity that benefits the worker so that he/she can fund and enjoy healthy living; proves to be a continuous revolving issue in westernized societies.[67]

Globalization has affected these issues by creating certain economic factors that disallow or allow various employment issues. Economist Edward Lee (1996) studies the effects of globalization and summarizes the four major points of concern that affect employment relations:

  1. International competition, from the newly industrialized countries, will cause unemployment growth and increased wage disparity for unskilled workers in industrialized countries. Imports from low-wage countries exert pressure on the manufacturing sector in industrialized countries and foreign direct investment (FDI) is attracted away from the industrialized nations, towards low-waged countries.[67]
  2. Economic liberalization will result in unemployment and wage inequality in developing countries. This happens as job losses in uncompetitive industries outstrip job opportunities in new industries.
  3. Workers will be forced to accept worsening wages and conditions, as a global labor market results in a “race to the bottom”. Increased international competition creates a pressure to reduce the wages and conditions of workers.[67]
  4. Globalization reduces the autonomy of the nation state. Capital is increasingly mobile and the ability of the state to regulate economic activity is reduced.

What also results from Lee's (1996) findings is that in industrialized countries an average of almost 70 per cent of workers are employed in the service sector, most of which consists of non-tradable activities. As a result, workers are forced to become more skilled and develop sought after trades, or find other means of survival. Ultimately this is a result of changes and trends of employment, an evolving workforce, and globalization that is represented by a more skilled and increasing highly diverse labor force, that are growing in non standard forms of employment (Markey, R. et al. 2006).[67]

Alternatives

[edit]

Subcultures

[edit]

Various youth subcultures have been associated with not working, such as the hippie subculture in the 1960s and 1970s (which endorsed the idea of "dropping out" of society) and the punk subculture.

Post-secondary education

[edit]

One of the alternatives to work is engaging in post-secondary education at a college, university or professional school. One of the major costs of obtaining a post-secondary education is the opportunity cost of forgone wages due to not working. At times when jobs are hard to find, such as during recessions, unemployed individuals may decide to get post-secondary education, because there is less of an opportunity cost.

Social assistance

[edit]

In some countries, individuals who are not working can receive social assistance support (e.g., welfare or food stamps) to enable them to rent housing, buy food, repair or replace household goods, maintenance of children and observe social customs that require financial expenditure.

Volunteerism

[edit]

Workers who are not paid wages, such as volunteers who perform tasks for charities, hospitals or not-for-profit organizations, are generally not considered employed. One exception to this is an internship, an employment situation in which the worker receives training or experience (and possibly college credit) as the chief form of compensation.[68]

Indentured servitude and slavery

[edit]

Those who work under obligation for the purpose of fulfilling a debt, such as indentured servants, or as property of the person or entity they work for, such as slaves, do not receive pay for their services and are not considered employed. Some historians[which?] suggest that slavery is older than employment, but both arrangements have existed for all recorded history.[citation needed] Indentured servitude and slavery are not considered compatible with human rights or with democracy.[68]

Self-employment

[edit]
 

Self-employment is the state of working for oneself rather than an employer. Tax authorities will generally view a person as self-employed if the person chooses to be recognised as such or if the person is generating income for which a tax return needs to be filed. In the real world, the critical issue for tax authorities is not whether a person is engaged in business activity (called trading even when referring to the provision of a service) but whether the activity is profitable and therefore potentially taxable. In other words, the trading is likely to be ignored if there is no profit, so occasional and hobby- or enthusiast-based economic activity is generally ignored by tax authorities. Self-employed people are usually classified as a sole proprietor (or sole trader), independent contractor, or as a member of a partnership.

Self-employed people generally find their own work rather than being provided with work by an employer and instead earn income from a profession, a trade, or a business that they operate. In some countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, the authorities are placing more emphasis on clarifying whether an individual is self-employed or engaged in disguised employment, in other words pretending to be in a contractual intra-business relationship to hide what is in fact an employer-employee relationship.

Statistics

[edit]

See also

[edit]

Notes and references

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Dakin, Stephen; Armstrong, J. Scott (1989). "Predicting job performance: A comparison of expert opinion and research findings" (PDF). International Journal of Forecasting. 5 (2): 187–94. doi:10.1016/0169-2070(89)90086-1. S2CID 14567834.
  2. ^ Archer, Richard; Borthwick, Kerry; Travers, Michelle; Ruschena, Leo (2017). WHS: A Management Guide (4th ed.). Cengage Learning Australia. pp. 30–31. ISBN 978-0-17-027079-3. Retrieved 2016-03-30. The most significant definitions are 'person conducting a business or undertaking' (PCBU). 'worker' and 'workplace'. [...] 'PCBU' is a wider ranging term than 'employer', though this will be what most people understand by it.
  3. ^ a b Robert A. Ristau (2010). Intro to Business. Cengage Learning. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-538-74066-1.
  4. ^ a b Bagley, Constance E (2017). The entrepreneur's guide to law and strategy. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-285-42849-9. OCLC 953710378.
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  6. ^ Dynamex Operations West, Inc. v. Superior Court, vol. 4, April 30, 2018, p. 903, retrieved March 30, 2020
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  8. ^ "Employer Liability for Employee Conduct". Findlaw. Retrieved 2020-03-30.
  9. ^ J. Mayhew Wainwright (1910). Report to the Legislature of the State of New York by the Commission appointed under Chapter 518 of the laws of 1909 to inquire into the question of employers' liability and other matters (Report). J. B. Lyon Company. pp. 11, 50, 144.
  10. ^ a b Deakin, Simon; Wilkinson, Frank (2005). The Law of the Labour Market (PDF). Oxford University Press.
  11. ^ Glynn, Timothy P.; Arnow-Richman, Rachel S.; Sullivan, Charles A. (2019). Employment Law: Private Ordering and Its Limitations. Wolters Kluwer Law & Business. ISBN 978-1-5438-0106-4 – via Google Books.
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  13. ^ New York Jurisprudence 2d. Vol. 52. West Group. 2009 – via Google Books.
  14. ^ Labor Cases. Vol. 158. Commerce Clearing House. 2009 – via Google Books.
  15. ^ Ellie Kaufman (May 19, 2018). "Met Opera sues former conductor for $5.8 million over sexual misconduct allegations". CNN.
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  17. ^ a b c d Ellerman 1992.
  18. ^ a b c d Ostergaard 1997, p. 133.
  19. ^ Thompson 1966, p. 599.
  20. ^ Thompson 1966, p. 912.
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  23. ^ "wage slave". Dictionary.com Unabridged (Online). n.d.
  24. ^ "...vulgar are the means of livelihood of all hired workmen whom we pay for mere manual labour, not for artistic skill; for in their case the very wage they receive is a pledge of their slavery." – De Officiis [1]
  25. ^ "As long as politics is the shadow cast on society by big business, the attenuation of the shadow will not change the substance", in "The Need for a New Party" (1931), Later Works 6, p163
  26. ^ a b Ferguson 1995.
  27. ^ Pfeffer, Jeffrey (2018). Dying for a Paycheck: How Modern Management Harms Employee Health and Company Performance – and What We Can Do About It. HarperBusiness. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-06-280092-3.
  28. ^ McGregor, Jena (March 22, 2018). "This professor says the workplace is the fifth leading cause of death in the U.S." The Washington Post. Retrieved June 7, 2023.
  29. ^ "House of Reps seals 'death' of WorkChoices". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 2008-03-19. Retrieved 2014-02-15.
  30. ^ Gross, Willi; Söhnlein, Walter (1990), Gross, Willi; Söhnlein, Walter (eds.), "Werkvertrag", Bürgerliches Recht 3: Fall · Systematik · Lösung · Schuldrecht · Besonderer Teil. Kauf und Tausch · Schenkung · Miete und Pacht · Leihe · Verwahrung · Darlehen · Bürgschaft · Dienst- und Werkvertrag (in German), Wiesbaden: Gabler Verlag, pp. 127–135, doi:10.1007/978-3-322-99402-8_13, ISBN 978-3-322-99402-8, retrieved 2021-04-11
  31. ^ "§ 631 BGB – Einzelnorm". www.gesetze-im-internet.de. Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  32. ^ "Arbeitsrecht". Recht – Schnell Erfasst. 2006. doi:10.1007/3-540-32544-1. ISBN 3-540-32541-7.
  33. ^ Höhl, Rebekka (2017). "Kollegen anstellen: Was beim Arbeitsvertrag zu beachten ist!". Uro-News (in German). 21: 45. doi:10.1007/s00092-017-1358-0.
  34. ^ "§ 611a BGB – Einzelnorm". www.gesetze-im-internet.de. Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  35. ^ "Links zu Musterverträgen". IHK Frankfurt am Main (in German). Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  36. ^ "Arbeitsvertrag (Befristet)". IHK Frankfurt am Main (in German). Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  37. ^ "Zeitarbeit: Infos und Stellen | Bundesagentur für Arbeit". www.arbeitsagentur.de. Retrieved 2024-05-17.
  38. ^ "Zeitarbeit = Leiharbeit: häufige Fragen – Bundesagentur für Arbeit". www.arbeitsagentur.de. Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  39. ^ Auer, M.; Egglmeier-Schmolke, B. (2009-10-01). "Arbeitnehmerüberlassung aus Deutschland im Bereich des Baugewerbes". Baurechtliche Blätter (in German). 12 (5): 199. doi:10.1007/s00738-009-0718-x. ISSN 1613-7612. S2CID 176538819.
  40. ^ Stieglmeier, Jacqueline (2005), Hök, Götz-Sebastian (ed.), "Internationales Arbeitsrecht", Handbuch des internationalen und ausländischen Baurechts (in German), Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, pp. 361–368, doi:10.1007/3-540-27450-2_24, ISBN 978-3-540-27450-6, retrieved 2021-04-11
  41. ^ "AÜG – nichtamtliches Inhaltsverzeichnis". www.gesetze-im-internet.de. Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  42. ^ a b c d "Brown v. J. Kaz, Inc., No. 08-2713 (3d Cir. Sept. 11, 2009)". Archived from the original on 2012-03-23. Retrieved 2010-01-23.
  43. ^ Lag om anställningsskydd (1982:80)
  44. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Claire Melamed, Renate Hartwig and Ursula Grant 2011. Jobs, growth and poverty: what do we know, what don't we know, what should we know? Archived May 20, 2011, at the Wayback Machine London: Overseas Development Institute
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  46. ^ 26 U.S.C. § 3401(c)
  47. ^ United States v. Latham, 754 F.2d 747, 750 (7th Cir. 1985).
  48. ^ "Termination". United States Department of Labor. Archived from the original on 27 September 2012. Retrieved 27 September 2012.
  49. ^ "Bluenomics". Archived from the original on 2014-11-17.
  50. ^ a b "Young Worker Safety and Health". www.cdc.gov. CDC NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic. Retrieved 2015-06-15.
  51. ^ a b c d "Work-Related Motor Vehicle Crashes" (PDF). NIOSH Publication 2013-153. NIOSH. September 2013.
  52. ^ "Work-Related Motor Vehicle Crashes: Preventing Injury to Young Drivers" (PDF). NIOSH Publication 2013-152. NIOSH. September 2013.
  53. ^ Joseph Holden, Youth employment programmes – What can be learnt from international experience with youth employment programmes? Economic and private sector professional evidence and applied knowledge services https://partnerplatform.org/?fza26891
  54. ^ Pastore, Francesco (2018-01-23). "Why is youth unemployment so high and different across countries?". IZA World of Labor. doi:10.15185/izawol.420.
  55. ^ Chosewood, L. Casey (May 3, 2011). "When It Comes to Work, How Old Is Too Old?". NIOSH: Workplace Safety and Health. Medscape and NIOSH.
  56. ^ Baert, Stijn (February 20, 2016). "Getting Grey Hairs in the Labour Market: An Alternative Experiment on Age Discrimination". Journal of Economic Psychology. 57: 86–101. doi:10.1016/j.joep.2016.10.002. hdl:10419/114164. S2CID 38265879.
  57. ^ Henderson, Kaitlyn (May 3, 2023). "Where hard work doesn't pay off: An index of US labor policies compared to peer nations". Oxfam. Retrieved February 18, 2024. The US is falling drastically behind similar countries in mandating adequate wages, protections, and rights for millions of workers and their families. The wealthiest country in the world is near the bottom of every dimension of this index.
  58. ^ Rank, Mark Robert (2023). The Poverty Paradox: Understanding Economic Hardship Amid American Prosperity. Oxford University Press. pp. 4, 121. ISBN 978-0190212636. The tendency of our free market economy has been to produce a growing number of jobs that will no longer support a family. In addition, the basic nature of capitalism ensures that unemployment exists at modest levels. Both of these directly result in a shortage of economic opportunities in American society. In addition, the absence of social supports stems from failings at the political and policy levels. The United States has traditionally lacked the political desire to put in place effective policies and programs that would support the economically vulnerable. Structural failing at the economic and political levels have therefore produced a lack of opportunities and supports, resulting in high rates of American poverty.
  59. ^ Desmond, Matthew (2023). Poverty, by America. Crown Publishing Group. p. 62. ISBN 9780593239919.
  60. ^ Kaufman, Bruce E. (2004) Theoretical Perspectives on Work and the Employment Relationship, Industrial Relations Research Association.
  61. ^ Fox, Alan (1974) Beyond Contract: Work, Power and Trust Relations, Farber and Farber.
  62. ^ Budd, John W. and Bhave, Devasheesh (2008) "Values, Ideologies, and Frames of Reference in Industrial Relations," in Sage Handbook of Industrial Relations, Sage.
  63. ^ Befort, Stephen F. and Budd, John W. (2009) Invisible Hands, Invisible Objectives: Bringing Workplace Law and Public Policy Into Focus, Stanford University Press.
  64. ^ Budd, John W. and Bhave, Devasheesh (2010) "The Employment Relationship," in Sage Handbook of Handbook of Human Resource Management, Sage.
  65. ^ a b c Yurendra Basnett and Ritwika Sen, What do empirical studies say about economic growth and job creation in developing countries? Economic and private sector professional evidence and applied knowledge services https://partnerplatform.org/?7ljwndv4
  66. ^ Blattman, Christopher; Annan, Jeannie (2016-02-01). "Can Employment Reduce Lawlessness and Rebellion? A Field Experiment with High-Risk Men in a Fragile State". American Political Science Review. 110 (1): 1–17. doi:10.1017/S0003055415000520. ISSN 0003-0554. S2CID 229170512.
  67. ^ a b c d e Budd, John W. (2004) Employment with a Human Face: Balancing Efficiency, Equity, and Voice, Cornell University Press.
  68. ^ a b Rayasam, Renuka (24 April 2008). "Why Workplace Democracy Can Be Good Business". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved 16 August 2010.

General bibliography

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Frequently Asked Questions

Yes, the Lacy Employment Law Firm can help you with issues related to immigration status or visas. They've got the expertise to navigate the complexities surrounding your employment rights in such situations.

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