Cannabis Culture

Cannabis Legalization Updates

Cannabis legalization updates are always a hot topic in the world of cannabis culture. With more and more states and countries legalizing the use of marijuana for both medical and recreational purposes, its important to stay informed on the latest changes and regulations.


Whether youre a seasoned cannabis enthusiast or just looking to learn more about the growing industry, keeping up with cannabis legalization updates is crucial. From new laws being passed to changes in licensing requirements, staying informed can help you navigate the ever-evolving landscape of cannabis legalization.


So, whether youre a consumer, business owner, or simply curious about the world of cannabis, be sure to stay tuned for the latest updates on cannabis legalization. Who knows what exciting developments could be just around the corner?

Cannabis News

Cannabis events and festivals have become increasingly popular in recent years as the acceptance and legalization of cannabis continues to grow. These events bring together like-minded individuals who share a passion for cannabis culture, advocacy, and education.


The atmosphere at these events is often one of camaraderie and celebration, with attendees coming together to learn about the latest trends in cannabis cultivation, consumption, and legislation. From music festivals to trade shows to educational seminars, there is something for everyone at a cannabis event.


One of the key elements of cannabis events and festivals is the opportunity for attendees to sample different strains of cannabis products from various vendors. This allows consumers to expand their knowledge of different strains and products available on the market.


Additionally, these events provide a platform for advocacy groups to raise awareness about important issues surrounding cannabis legalization and regulation. By bringing together industry professionals, activists, and enthusiasts, these events help promote dialogue and understanding about the benefits of cannabis.


Overall, cannabis events and festivals play a crucial role in shaping the future of cannabis culture by providing a space for education, community building, and celebration. Whether you are a seasoned consumer or new to the world of cannabis, attending one of these events can be an enriching experience that connects you with others who share your passion for this versatile plant.

Citations and other links

Cannabis Health Benefits Research

Cannabis has been a topic of interest for many years, especially when it comes to its potential health benefits. Research on cannabis and its health benefits is ongoing, with scientists and medical professionals looking into how this plant can be used to improve our well-being.


One of the most well-known health benefits of cannabis is its ability to help alleviate chronic pain. Cannabis contains compounds called cannabinoids that interact with our bodys endocannabinoid system, which plays a role in regulating pain. This makes cannabis a promising option for those suffering from conditions like arthritis, multiple sclerosis, or fibromyalgia.


In addition to pain relief, cannabis has also shown promise in treating mental health disorders such as anxiety and depression. Some studies have suggested that certain cannabinoids may have anti-anxiety and antidepressant effects, making cannabis a potential alternative or complementary therapy for those struggling with these conditions.


Furthermore, research has also explored the potential anti-inflammatory properties of cannabis, which could make it beneficial for conditions like inflammatory bowel disease or even acne. Cannabinoids have been shown to reduce inflammation in the body, which could help alleviate symptoms associated with these conditions.


Overall, the research on cannabis and its health benefits is still in its early stages, but the findings so far are promising. As more studies are conducted and more evidence is gathered, we may discover even more ways in which this plant can be used to improve our health and well-being.

Cannabis Health Benefits Research

 

Minnesota
Nicknames
North Star State; Gopher State; Land of 10,000 Lakes; Land of Sky Blue Waters;[1]
Motto
L'Étoile du Nord (French: The Star of the North)[2]
Anthem: "Hail! Minnesota"
Location of Minnesota within the United States
Location of Minnesota within the United States
Country United States
Before statehood Minnesota Territory
Admitted to the Union May 11, 1858 (32nd State in the Union)
Capital Saint Paul
Largest city Minneapolis
Largest county or equivalent Hennepin
Largest metro and urban areas Minneapolis–Saint Paul
Government
 
 • Governor Tim Walz (DFL)
 • Lieutenant Governor Peggy Flanagan (DFL)
Legislature Legislature
 • Upper house Senate
 • Lower house House of Representatives
Judiciary Minnesota Supreme Court
U.S. senators Amy Klobuchar (DFL)
Tina Smith (DFL)
U.S. House delegation 4 Democrats
4 Republicans (list)
Area
 
 • Total
86,935.83 sq mi (225,163 km2)
 • Land 79,626.74 sq mi (206,232 km2)
 • Water 7,309.09 sq mi (18,930 km2)  8.40%
 • Rank 12th
Dimensions
 
 • Length about 400 mi (640 km)
 • Width 200–350 mi (320–560 km)
Elevation
 
1,200 ft (370 m)
Highest elevation 2,301 ft (701 m)
Lowest elevation 602 ft (183 m)
Population
 (2024)
 • Total
Neutral increase 5,793,151[5]
 • Rank 22nd
 • Density 68.9/sq mi (26.6/km2)
  • Rank 36th (2020 census)
 • Median household income
 
$85,100 (2023)[6]
 • Income rank
 
13th
Demonym Minnesotan
Language
 
 • Official language none
 • Spoken language
Time zone UTC– 06:00 (Central)
 • Summer (DST) UTC– 05:00 (CDT)
USPS abbreviation
MN
ISO 3166 code US-MN
Traditional abbreviation Minn.
Latitude 43° 30′ N to 49° 23′ N
Longitude 89° 29′ W to 97° 14′ W
Website mn.gov
State symbols of Minnesota
List of state symbols
Living insignia
Bird Common loon
Butterfly Monarch
Fish Walleye
Flower Pink-and-white lady's slipper
Mushroom Common morel (Morchella esculenta)
Tree Norway pine[8] (Pinus resinosa)
Inanimate insignia
Beverage Milk
Food
Gemstone Lake Superior agate
Other Photograph: Grace
State quarter
Minnesota quarter dollar coin
Released in 2005
Lists of United States state symbols

Minnesota (/ˌmɪnəˈstə/ MIN-ə-SOH-tə) is a state in the Upper Midwestern region of the United States. It is bordered by the Canadian provinces of Manitoba and Ontario to the north and east and by the U.S. states of Wisconsin to the east, Iowa to the south, and North Dakota and South Dakota to the west. It is the 12th-largest U.S. state in area and the 22nd-most populous, with about 5.8 million residents. Minnesota is known as the "Land of 10,000 Lakes"; it has 14,420 bodies of fresh water covering at least ten acres each.[9] Roughly a third of the state is forested. Much of the remainder is prairie and farmland. More than 60% of Minnesotans (about 3.71 million) live in the Minneapolis–Saint Paul metropolitan area, known as the "Twin Cities", which is Minnesota's main political, economic, and cultural hub[10] and the 16th-largest metropolitan area in the U.S. Other minor metropolitan and micropolitan statistical areas include Duluth, Mankato, Moorhead, Rochester, and St. Cloud.[11]

Minnesota, which derives its name from the Dakota language, has been inhabited by various Native Americans since the Woodland period of the 11th century BCE. Between roughly 200 and 500 CE, two areas of the indigenous Hopewell tradition emerged: the Laurel complex in the north, and Trempealeau Hopewell in the Mississippi River Valley in the south. The Upper Mississippian culture, consisting of the Oneota people and other Siouan speakers, emerged around 1000 CE and lasted through the arrival of Europeans in the 17th century. French explorers and missionaries were the earliest Europeans to enter the region, encountering the Dakota, Ojibwe, and various Anishinaabe tribes. Much of what is now Minnesota formed part of the vast French holding of Louisiana, which the United States purchased in 1803. After several territorial reorganizations, the Minnesota Territory was admitted to the Union as the 32nd state in 1858. Minnesota's official motto, L'Étoile du Nord ("The Star of the North"), is the only state motto in French.[2] This phrase was adopted shortly after statehood and reflects both the state's early French explorers and its position as the northernmost state in the contiguous U.S.

As part of the American frontier, Minnesota attracted settlers and homesteaders from across the country. Its growth was initially based on timber, agriculture, and railroad construction. Into the early 20th century, European immigrants arrived in significant numbers, particularly from Scandinavia, Germany, and Central Europe. Many were linked to the failed revolutions of 1848, which partly influenced the state's development as a center of labor and social activism.[12] Minnesota's rapid industrialization and urbanization precipitated major social, economic, and political changes in the late 19th and early 20th centuries; the state was at the forefront of labor rights, women's suffrage, and political reform.[13] Consequently, Minnesota is relatively unique among Midwestern states in being a reliable base for the Democratic Party, having voted for every Democratic presidential nominee since 1976, longer than any other U.S. state.[14]

Since the late 20th century, Minnesota's economy has diversified away from traditional industries such as agriculture and resource extraction to services, finance, and health care. Minnesota ranks highly among national averages in terms of life expectancy, healthcare standards, and education, and above average in income per capita. Minnesota is home to 11 federally recognized Native American reservations (seven Ojibwe, four Dakota), and its culture, demographics, and religious landscape reflect Scandinavian and German influence. This heritage continues to affect the state's racial demographics, making it one of the country's least diverse states,[15] but in recent decades, Minnesota has become more multicultural, due to both larger domestic migration and immigration from Latin America, Asia, the Horn of Africa, and the Middle East. The state has the nation's largest population of Somali Americans and second-largest Hmong community.[16]

Etymology

[edit]

The word Minnesota comes from the Dakota[17] name for the Minnesota River, which got its name from one of two words in Dakota: "mní sóta", which means "clear blue water",[18][19] or "Mníssota", which means "cloudy water".[20][21] Early explorers interpreted the Dakota name for the Minnesota River in different ways, and four spellings of the state's name were considered before settling on "Minnesota" in 1849, when the Territory of Minnesota was formed.[22] Dakota people demonstrated the name to early settlers by dropping milk into water and calling it mní sóta.[21]

Many places in the state have similar Dakota names, such as Minnehaha Falls ("curling water" or waterfall), Minneiska ("white water"), Minneota ("much water"), Minnetonka ("big water"), Minnetrista ("crooked water"), and Minneapolis, a hybrid word combining Dakota mní ("water") and -polis (Greek for "city").[23] The state seal features the phrase Mni Sóta Makoce ("the land where the water reflects the skies"), the Dakota name for the larger region.[24]

History

[edit]
A map of Minnesota Territory 1849–1858

When Europeans arrived in North America, the Dakota people lived in what is now Minnesota. The first Europeans to enter the region were French voyageurs, fur traders who arrived in the 17th century. They used the Grand Portage to access trapping and trading areas further into Minnesota. The Anishinaabe (also known as Ojibwe or Chippewa) were migrating into Minnesota, causing tensions with the Dakota people,[25] and dislocated the Mdewakanton from their homelands along Mille Lacs Lake. Explorers such as Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du Lhut, Father Louis Hennepin, Jonathan Carver, Henry Schoolcraft, and Joseph Nicollet mapped the state.

The region was part of Spanish Louisiana from 1762 to 1802.[26][27] The portion of the state east of the Mississippi River became part of the United States at the end of the American Revolutionary War, when the Second Treaty of Paris was signed. Land west of the Mississippi was acquired with the Louisiana Purchase, though the Hudson's Bay Company disputed the Red River Valley until the Treaty of 1818, when the border on the 49th parallel was agreed upon.[28]

In 1805, Zebulon Pike bargained with Native Americans to acquire land at the confluence of the Minnesota and Mississippi rivers to create a military reservation. The construction of Fort Snelling followed between 1819 and 1825.[29] Its soldiers built a grist mill and a sawmill at Saint Anthony Falls, which were harbingers of the water-powered industries around which Minneapolis later grew. Meanwhile, squatters, government officials, and others had settled near the fort; in 1839 the army forced them off military lands, and most moved downriver, just outside the military reservation, to the area that became St. Paul.[30]

Minnesota was part of several territorial organizations between acquisition and statehood. From 1812 to 1821 it was part of the Territory of Missouri that corresponded with much of the Louisiana Purchase. It was briefly an unorganized territory (1821–1834) and was later consolidated with Wisconsin, Iowa and half the Dakotas to form the short-lived Territory of Michigan (1834–1836). From 1836 to 1848, Minnesota and Iowa were part of the Territory of Wisconsin. From 1838 to 1846, Minnesota west of the Mississippi River was part of the Territory of Iowa. Minnesota east of the Mississippi was part of Wisconsin until 1848.[31]

When Iowa gained statehood, western Minnesota was in an Unorganized Territory again. Minnesota Territory was formed on March 3, 1849. The first territorial legislature, held on September 2, 1849,[32] was dominated by men of New England ancestry.[33] Thousands of pioneers had come to create farms and cut timber. Minnesota became the 32nd U.S. state on May 11, 1858. The founding population was so overwhelmingly of New England origins that the state was dubbed "the New England of the West".[34][31][35][36]

Mixed Dakota-Europeans who were rescued by "non-hostile" Dakota. The girl in the foreground wrapped in the striped blanket is Elise Robertson, the sister of Thomas Robertson, a mixed blood who acted as an intermediary between the Dakota and the European-Americans during the Dakota War of 1862

Treaties between the U.S. government and the eastern Dakota and Ojibwe gradually forced the natives off their lands and onto reservations. As conditions deteriorated for the eastern Dakota, tensions rose, leading to the Dakota War of 1862.[37] The conflict was ignited when four young Dakota men, searching for food, killed a family of white settlers on August 17. That night, a faction of Little Crow's eastern Dakota decided to try to drive all settlers out of the Minnesota River valley. In the weeks that followed, Dakota warriors killed hundreds of settlers, causing thousands to flee the area.[38] The six-week war ended with the defeat of the eastern Dakota and 2,000 in custody, who were eventually exiled to the Crow Creek Reservation by the Great Sioux Reservation in Dakota Territory. The remaining 4,500 to 5,000 Dakota mostly fled the state into Rupert's Land.[28] As many as 800 settlers were killed during the war.[39]

Minnesota Governor Alexander Ramsey subsequently declared that "the Sioux Indians of Minnesota must be exterminated or driven forever beyond the borders of the state"[40] and placed a bounty of $25/scalp on the heads of the eastern Dakota men. Over 1,600 eastern Dakota women, children, and elderly walked from the Lower Sioux Agency to Fort Snelling to be held until the spring thaw allowed riverboats to take them out of Minnesota to Crow Creek Indian Reservation.[41] William Crooks, commander of 6th Minnesota, had a palisade erected around the encampment on Pike Island, just below the fort, to protect native people from the soldiers and settlers.[42] Conditions there were poor and between 125 and 300 died of disease.[43][44] Around 400 Dakota men were tried after the war. 303 were sentenced to death, but Abraham Lincoln reviewed the convictions and approved 39 of the death sentences. In December 1862, 38 of them were hanged.[28]

In early 1863, Ramsey resigned as governor to become the Federal Indian Commissioner. His successor, Governor Henry Swift, raised the bounty to $200/scalp. A total of $325 was paid out to four people collecting bounties, including for Little Crow who was killed in July 1863.[44] Upon becoming Indian Commissioner, Ramsey set out to get Ojibwe lands too. In 1863 he negotiated the Treaty of Old Crossing, whereby the Ojibwe ceded all their land in northern Minnesota and moved to reservations.

Logging, farming, and railroads were mainstays of Minnesota's early economy. The sawmills at Saint Anthony Falls and logging centers of Pine City, Marine on St. Croix, Stillwater, and Winona processed vast quantities of timber. These cities were on rivers that were ideal for transportation.[28] St. Anthony Falls was later tapped to provide power for flour mills. Innovations by Minneapolis millers led to the production of Minnesota "patent" flour, which commanded almost double the price of "bakers'" or "clear" flour which it replaced.[45] By 1900, Minnesota mills, led by Pillsbury, Northwestern, and the Washburn-Crosby Company, an ancestor of General Mills, were grinding 14.1% of the nation's grain.[46]

Phelps Mill in Otter Tail County

The state's iron-mining industry was established with the discovery of iron in the Vermilion and Mesabi ranges in the 1880s, followed by the Cuyuna Range in the early 1900s. The ore went by rail to Duluth and Two Harbors for ship transport east via the Great Lakes.[28]

Industrial development and the rise of manufacturing caused the population to shift gradually from rural areas to cities during the early 20th century. Nevertheless, farming remained prevalent. Minnesota's economy was hit hard by the Great Depression, resulting in lower prices for farmers, layoffs among iron miners, and labor unrest. Compounding the adversity, western Minnesota and the Dakotas were hit by drought from 1931 to 1935. New Deal programs provided some economic turnaround. The Civilian Conservation Corps and other programs around the state established some jobs for Indians on their reservations, and the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 provided the tribes with a mechanism of self-government. This gave Natives a greater voice within the state and promoted more respect for tribal customs because religious ceremonies and native languages were no longer suppressed.[29]

After World War II, industrial development quickened. New technology increased farm productivity through automation of feedlots for hogs and cattle, machine milking at dairy farms, and raising chickens in large buildings. Planting became more specialized, with hybridization of corn and wheat, and farm machinery such as tractors and combines became the norm. University of Minnesota professor Norman Borlaug contributed to these developments as part of the Green Revolution.[29] Increased mobility enabled more specialized jobs.[29]

Minnesota became a center of technology after World War II. Engineering Research Associates was formed in 1946 to develop computers for the United States Navy. It later merged with Remington Rand, and then became Sperry Rand. William Norris left Sperry in 1957 to form Control Data Corporation (CDC).[47] Cray Research was formed when Seymour Cray left CDC to form his own company. Medical device maker Medtronic also started business in the Twin Cities in 1949. The nonprofit Mayo Clinic, which was founded in 1864 in Rochester, grew to become one of the country's leading medical systems, and, by the 21st century, Minnesota's largest private employer.[48][49]

In 1957, the legislature created a planning commission for the Twin Cities metropolitan area, which became the Metropolitan Council in 1967.[50] In 1971, under Governor Wendell Anderson, a series of legislation called the "Minnesota Miracle" led to a broad reform in financing of Minnesota public schools and local governments that created a fairer distribution in taxation and education.[51][52] Two postwar Minnesota governors, former dentist Rudy Perpich and former professional wrestler Jesse Ventura, attracted national attention for their unconventional manner, but both enjoyed some popularity within the state.[50][51] After a period of mostly divided government during the 21st century, the DFL (Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party) gained control of all three branches of Minnesota's government and passed significant reforms in the 2023 legislative session, moving the state in a progressive direction.[53][54]

Geography

[edit]
Scalable map of Minnesota, showing roads and major bodies of water

Minnesota is the second northernmost U.S. state (after Alaska) and northernmost contiguous state, as the isolated Northwest Angle in Lake of the Woods County is the only part of the 48 contiguous states north of the 49th parallel. The state is part of the U.S. region known as the Upper Midwest and part of North America's Great Lakes region. It shares a Lake Superior water border with Michigan and a land and water border with Wisconsin to the east. Iowa is to the south, North Dakota and South Dakota are to the west, and the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Manitoba are to the north. With 86,943 square miles (225,180 km2),[55] or approximately 2.25% of the United States,[56] Minnesota is the 12th-largest state.[57]

Geology

[edit]
Tilted beds of the Middle Precambrian Thomson Formation in Jay Cooke State Park[58]

Minnesota has some of the earth's oldest rocks, gneisses that are about 3.6 billion years old (80% as old as the planet).[58][59] About 2.7 billion years ago basaltic lava poured out of cracks in the floor of the primordial ocean; the remains of this volcanic rock formed the Canadian Shield in northeast Minnesota.[58][60] The roots of these volcanic mountains and the action of Precambrian seas formed the Iron Range of northern Minnesota. Since a period of volcanism 1.1 billion years ago, Minnesota's geological activity has been more subdued, with no volcanism or mountain formation, but with repeated incursions of the sea, which left behind multiple strata of sedimentary rock.[58]

In more recent times, massive ice sheets at least one kilometer thick ravaged the state's landscape and sculpted its terrain.[58] The Wisconsin glaciation left 12,000 years ago.[58] These glaciers covered all of Minnesota except the far southeast, an area characterized by steep hills and streams that cut into the bedrock. This area is known as the Driftless Zone for its absence of glacial drift.[61] Much of the remainder of the state has 50 feet (15 m) or more of glacial till left behind as the last glaciers retreated. Gigantic Lake Agassiz formed in the northwest 13,000 years ago. Its flatbed now is the fertile Red River valley, and its outflow, glacial River Warren, carved the valley of the Minnesota River and the Upper Mississippi downstream from Fort Snelling.[58] Minnesota is geologically quiet today; it experiences earthquakes infrequently, most of them minor.[62]

Palisade Head on Lake Superior was formed from a Precambrian rhyolitic lava flow.[58]

The state's high point is Eagle Mountain at 2,301 feet (701 m), which is only 13 miles (21 km) away from the low point of 601 feet (183 m) at the shore of Lake Superior.[60][63] Notwithstanding dramatic local differences in elevation, much of the state is a gently rolling peneplain.[58]

Two major drainage divides meet in Minnesota's northeast in rural Hibbing, forming a triple watershed. Precipitation can follow the Mississippi River south to the Gulf of Mexico, the Saint Lawrence Seaway east to the Atlantic Ocean, or the Hudson Bay watershed to the Arctic Ocean.[64]

The state's nickname "Land of 10,000 Lakes" is apt, as there are 11,842 Minnesota lakes over 10 acres (4 ha) in size.[65] Minnesota's portion of Lake Superior is the largest at 962,700 acres (389,600 ha; 3,896 km2) and deepest (at 1,290 ft (390 m)) body of water in the state.[65] Minnesota has 6,564 natural rivers and streams that cumulatively flow for 69,000 miles (111,000 km).[65] The Mississippi River begins its journey from its headwaters at Lake Itasca and crosses the Iowa border 680 miles (1,090 km) downstream.[65] It is joined by the Minnesota River at Fort Snelling, by the St. Croix River near Hastings, by the Chippewa River at Wabasha, and by many smaller streams. The Red River drains the northwest part of the state northward toward Canada's Hudson Bay. Approximately 10.6 million acres (4,300,000 ha; 43,000 km2) of wetlands are within Minnesota's borders, the most of any state outside Alaska.[66]

Flora and fauna

[edit]

Minnesota has four ecological provinces: prairie parkland, in the southwestern and western parts of the state; the eastern broadleaf forest (Big Woods) in the southeast, extending in a narrowing strip to the state's northwestern part, where it transitions into tallgrass aspen parkland; and the northern Laurentian mixed forest, a transitional forest between the northern boreal forest and the broadleaf forests to the south.[67] These northern forests are a vast wilderness of pine and spruce trees mixed with patchy stands of birch and poplar.

Much of Minnesota's northern forest has undergone logging, leaving only a few patches of old growth forest today in areas such as the Chippewa National Forest and the Superior National Forest, where the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness has some 400,000 acres (162,000 ha) of unlogged land.[68] Although logging continues, regrowth and replanting keep about a third of the state forested.[69] Nearly all Minnesota's prairies and oak savannas have been fragmented by farming, grazing, logging, and suburban development.[70]

While loss of habitat has affected native animals such as the pine marten, elk, woodland caribou, and bison,[71] others like whitetail deer and bobcat thrive. Minnesota has the nation's largest population of timber wolves outside Alaska,[72] and supports healthy populations of black bears, moose, and gophers. Located on the Mississippi Flyway, Minnesota hosts migratory waterfowl such as geese and ducks, and game birds such as grouse, pheasants, and turkeys. It is home to birds of prey, including the largest number of breeding pairs of bald eagles in the lower 48 states as of 2007,[73] red-tailed hawks, and snowy owls. Hawk Ridge is one of the premier birdwatching sites in North America. The lakes teem with sport fish such as walleye, bass, muskellunge, and northern pike, while brook, brown, and rainbow trout populate streams in the southeast and northeast.

Climate

[edit]
Minnesota's Köppen climate types

Minnesota experiences temperature extremes characteristic of its continental climate, with cold winters and hot summers. The lowest temperature recorded was −60 °F (−51 °C) at Tower on February 2, 1996. The highest was 114 °F (46 °C) at Moorhead on July 6, 1936.[74] Meteorological events include rain, snow, blizzards, thunderstorms, hail, derechos, tornadoes, and high-velocity straight-line winds. The growing season varies from 90 days in the far northeast to 160 days in southeast Minnesota near the Mississippi River. Average temperatures range from 37 to 49 °F (3 to 9 °C).[75] Average summer dewpoints range from about 58 °F (14 °C) in the south to about 48 °F (9 °C) in the north.[75][76] Average annual precipitation ranges from 19 to 35 inches (48 to 89 cm). Droughts occur every 10 to 50 years.[75]

Minnesota has been affected by climate change and warmed over the past few years. Rising temperatures have affected natural habitats and many species that live in them. For example, the lakes' water is warming, which affects fish populations: trout, a cold-water fish, is losing its habitat, while the habitat of bass, a warm-water fish, is growing.[77]

Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for selected cities in Minnesota[78]
Location July (°F) July (°C) January (°F) January (°C)
Minneapolis 83/64 28/18 23/7 −4/−13
Saint Paul 83/63 28/17 23/6 −5/−14
Rochester 82/63 28/17 23/3 −5/−16
Duluth 76/55 24/13 19/1 −7/−17
St. Cloud 81/58 27/14 18/−1 −7/−18
Mankato 86/62 30/16 23/3 −5/−16
International Falls 77/52 25/11 15/−6 −9/−21

Protected lands

[edit]
Pose Lake in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness

Minnesota's first state park, Itasca State Park, was established in 1891, and is the source of the Mississippi River.[79] Today Minnesota has 72 state parks and recreation areas, 58 state forests covering about four million acres (16,000 km2), and numerous state wildlife preserves, all managed by the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources. The Chippewa and Superior national forests comprise 5.5 million acres (22,000 km2). The Superior National Forest in the northeast contains the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness, which encompasses over a million acres (4,000 km2) and a thousand lakes. To its west is Voyageurs National Park. The Mississippi National River and Recreation Area (MNRRA) is a 72-mile-long (116 km) corridor along the Mississippi River through the Minneapolis–St. Paul Metropolitan Area connecting a variety of sites of historic, cultural, and geologic interest.[80]

Cities and towns

[edit]
National Farmers Bank in Owatonna by Louis Sullivan
Minnesota Municipalities counties, cities, and towns.

Saint Paul, in east-central Minnesota along the banks of the Mississippi River, has been Minnesota's capital city since 1849, first as capital of the Territory of Minnesota, and then as the state capital since 1858.

Saint Paul is adjacent to Minnesota's most populous city, Minneapolis; they and their suburbs are collectively known as the Twin Cities metropolitan area, the country's 16th-largest metropolitan area and home to about 55% of the state's population.[81] The remainder of the state is known as "Greater Minnesota" or "Outstate Minnesota".[82]

The state has 17 cities with populations above 50,000 as of the 2010 census. In descending order of population, they are Minneapolis, Saint Paul, Rochester, Duluth, Bloomington, Brooklyn Park, Plymouth, Saint Cloud, Woodbury, Eagan, Maple Grove, Coon Rapids, Eden Prairie, Minnetonka, Burnsville, Apple Valley, Blaine, and Lakeville.[83] Of these, only Rochester, Duluth, and Saint Cloud are outside the Twin Cities metropolitan area.

Minnesota's population continues to grow, primarily in the urban centers. The populations of metropolitan Sherburne and Scott counties doubled between 1980 and 2000, while 40 of the state's 87 counties lost residents over the same period.[84]

 
 
Largest cities or towns in Minnesota
Source:[85]
  Rank Name County Pop.  
Minneapolis
Minneapolis
Saint Paul
Saint Paul
1 Minneapolis Hennepin 425,336 Rochester
Rochester
Bloomington
Bloomington
2 Saint Paul Ramsey 307,193
3 Rochester Olmsted 121,465
4 Bloomington Hennepin 89,298
5 Duluth St. Louis 86,372
6 Brooklyn Park Hennepin 84,526
7 Plymouth Hennepin 79,828
8 Woodbury Washington 76,990
9 Lakeville Dakota 72,812
10 Blaine Anoka 70,935

The United States Navy has recognized multiple Minnesota communities.

Demographics

[edit]

Overview

[edit]
A map of Minnesota's population density, 2020
Historical population
Census Pop. Note
1850 6,077  
1860 172,023   2,730.7%
1870 439,706   155.6%
1880 780,773   77.6%
1890 1,310,283   67.8%
1900 1,751,394   33.7%
1910 2,075,708   18.5%
1920 2,387,125   15.0%
1930 2,563,953   7.4%
1940 2,792,300   8.9%
1950 2,982,483   6.8%
1960 3,413,864   14.5%
1970 3,804,971   11.5%
1980 4,075,970   7.1%
1990 4,375,099   7.3%
2000 4,919,479   12.4%
2010 5,303,925   7.8%
2020 5,706,494   7.6%
2024 (est.) 5,793,151   1.5%
Source: 1910–2020[86]
2022 Estimate[5]

According to the United States Census Bureau and the Minnesota State Demographic Center, Minnesota had a population of about 5.7 million in 2020, making it the 22nd-most populous U.S. state.[87] Its fertility rate in 2021 was slightly below the replacement rate at 1.75, but the state has seen growth over the past century through more births than deaths, and significant immigration.[88] A destination for European immigrants in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, primarily from Scandinavia, Germany, and Ireland, it now attracts people from Latin America, primarily Mexico; East Africa, particularly Somalis and Ethiopians; and South and Southeast Asia, especially Hmong, Vietnamese, and Indians.[7] The state has a diverse population in terms of age, birthplace, ancestry, and socioeconomic status, with a well-educated populace and a median household income around $77,000.[89]

Race and ethnicity

[edit]

Minnesota's racial demographics have significantly diversified since its early settlement period. As of 2020, according to U.S. census data, the white population had fallen to 77.5% from over 98% in the early to mid-20th century.[90] Concurrently, other racial populations have markedly increased. The Black population has risen to 7%, the Asian population to 5.3%, and those identifying as two or more races to 6.1%.

Racial composition in 2020[91]
Race Percentage
White 77.5%
Black or African American 7.0%
American Indian 1.2%
Asian 5.3%
Pacific Islander 0.1%
Other race 3.2%
Two or more races 6.1%

In the 2017 American Community Survey, 5.1% of Minnesota's population were of Hispanic or Latino origin (of any race): Mexican (3.5%), Puerto Rican (0.2%), Cuban (0.1%), and other Hispanic or Latino origin (1.2%).[92] The ancestry groups claimed by more than 5% of the population were German (33.8%), Norwegian (15.3%), Irish (10.5%), Swedish (8.1%), and English (5.4%).[93] Minnesota has the country's largest Somali population, and the largest Hmong population per capita.[94] Minnesota also has the largest Norwegian American and Swedish American populations.

Immigration

[edit]

Since the 1960s, Minnesota's immigrant population has been shaped by its status as a major area for refugee resettlement. As of 2018, Minnesota had the largest refugee population per capita of any state, with 2% of the country's population but 13% of its refugees.[95] The largest groups of refugees over the past decades have been Hmongs, Somalis, Ethiopians, and Vietnamese; other major refugee groups that have recently been settling in Minnesota include Burmese, Liberians, Ecuadorians, Congolese, Russians, and Ukrainians.[96][97] Minnesota also receives large numbers of non-refugee immigrants, primarily from Mexico, India, China, Korea, and Canada.

Country of origin of first and second-generation immigrants (2023)[98][99]
Country Population
 Mexico 95,227
 Somalia 76,658
Hmong people[b] 55,005
 India 39,559
 Ethiopia 36,982
 Laos 24,901
 China 24,353
 Vietnam 22,283
 Liberia 20,168
 South Korea 20,126
 Thailand 19,235
 Canada 18,804
 Kenya 16,823
 Myanmar 15,679
 Philippines 13,544
 Russia 12,787
 El Salvador 12,137
Nigeria Nigeria 9,508
Guatemala Guatemala 7,727
 Ecuador 6,298

Religion

[edit]
The French Renaissance style Cathedral of St. Paul in the city of St. Paul

Minnesota's religious landscape is also diverse, having evolved significantly over its history. The area's first Christian influence came from Catholic missionaries in the 17th and 18th centuries. 19th-century European settlers, especially Scandinavians, established Protestant denominations, particularly Lutheranism. Catholicism also continued to be significant due to Irish immigrants, and the Archdiocese of Saint Paul and Minneapolis serves a substantial Catholic community. The 20th and 21st centuries witnessed growth in other Christian denominations and non-Christian religions due to further immigration, leading to the establishment of Buddhist, Hmong folk religion, Muslim, and Hindu communities, as well as a sizable Jewish community.[100][101] A growing number of people identify as non-religious, in line with national trends. As of 2014, 74% of Minnesotans identified as Christian, 5% belonged to non-Christian faiths, and 20% identified as religiously unaffiliated, according to the Pew Research Center.[102]

Languages

[edit]

The Spanish, Cushite, Beja, Somali, Miao, Hmong, Vietnamese, Chinese, Russian, Arabic, Amharic, Karen, and Niger-Congo languages are spoken in Minnesota.[103]

Historical racial and ethnic composition

[edit]

(NH = Non-Hispanic)

Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos may be of any race.

 
Race / Ethnicity Pop 2000 Pop 2010 Pop 2020
White alone (NH) 4,337,143 4,405,142 4,353,880
Black or African American alone (NH) 168,813 269,141 392,850
Native American or Alaska Native alone (NH) 52,009 55,421 57,046
Asian alone (NH) 141,083 212,996 297,460
Pacific Islander alone (NH) 1,714 1,860 2,621
Some Other Race alone (NH) 5,031 5,947 20,963
Mixed Race/Multi-Racial (NH) 70,304 103,160 236,034
Hispanic or Latino (any race) 143,382 250,258 345,640
Total 4,919,979 5,303,925 5,706,494

Economy

[edit]

Once primarily a producer of raw materials, Minnesota's economy has transformed to emphasize finished products and services. Perhaps the most significant characteristic of the economy is its diversity; the relative outputs of its business sectors closely match the United States as a whole.[104] Minnesota's economy had a gross domestic product of $383 billion in 2019,[105] with 33 of the United States' top 1,000 publicly traded companies by revenue headquartered in Minnesota,[106] including Target, UnitedHealth Group, 3M, General Mills, U.S. Bancorp, Ameriprise, Hormel, Land O' Lakes, SuperValu, Best Buy, and Valspar. Private companies based in Minnesota include Cargill, the largest privately owned company in the United States,[107] and Carlson Companies, the parent company of Radisson Hotels.[108]

Minnesota's per capita personal income in 2019 was $58,834, the thirteenth-highest in the nation.[109] Its 2019 median household income was $74,593, ranking thirteenth in the U.S. and fifth among the 36 states not on the Atlantic coast.[110]

Industry and commerce

[edit]
The IDS Tower, designed by Philip Johnson, is the state's tallest building,[111] reflecting César Pelli's Art Deco-style Wells Fargo Center.

Minnesota's earliest industries were fur trading and agriculture. Minneapolis grew around the flour mills powered by St. Anthony Falls. Although less than 1% of the population is now employed in the agricultural sector,[112] it remains a major part of the state's economy, ranking sixth in the nation in the value of products sold.[113] The state is the nation's largest producer of sugar beets, sweet corn, peas for processing, and farm-raised turkeys. Minnesota is also a large producer of corn and soybeans,[114] and has the most food cooperatives per capita in the United States.[115] Forestry remains strong, including logging, pulpwood processing and paper production, and forest products manufacturing. Minnesota was famous for its soft-ore mines, which produced a significant portion of the world's iron ore for more than a century. Although the high-grade ore is now depleted, taconite mining continues, using processes developed locally to save the industry. In 2016 the state produced 60% of the country's usable iron ore.[114] The mining boom created the port of Duluth, which continues to be important for shipping ore, coal, and agricultural products. The manufacturing sector now includes technology and biomedical firms, in addition to the older food processors and heavy industry. The nation's first indoor shopping mall was Edina's Southdale Center, and its largest is Bloomington's Mall of America. Minnesota is one of 45 U.S. states with its own lottery; its games include multi-jurisdiction draws and in-house draws.

Largest employers

[edit]

As of 2025, Minnesota's largest employers were:[116]

 
Company Employees in Minnesota Headquartered in Minnesota?
Mayo Clinic 56,999 Yes
State of Minnesota 44,889 Yes
Target Corporation 35,000 Yes
M Health Fairview 34,673 Yes
HealthPartners 26,300 Yes
Walmart 24,677 No
University of Minnesota 23,481 Yes
Allina Health 21,387 Yes
UnitedHealth Group 19,000 Yes
Federal government 18,031 No
Minnesota State Colleges and Universities system 14,539 Yes
Essentia Health 12,606 Yes
CentraCare Health 11,337 Yes
Wells Fargo 11,000 No
U.S. Bancorp 11,000 No

Energy use and production

[edit]

Minnesota produces ethanol fuel and is the first to mandate its use, a 10% mix (E10).[117] In 2019 there were more than 411 service stations supplying E85 fuel, comprising 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline.[118] A 2% biodiesel blend has been required in diesel fuel since 2005. Minnesota is ranked in the top ten for wind energy production. The state gets nearly one-fifth of all its electrical energy from wind.[119]

Xcel Energy is the state's largest utility and is headquartered in the state;[120] it is one of five investor-owned utilities.[121] There are also a number of municipal utilities.[121] There are also 44 electric distribution cooperatives serving retail electric consumers throughout the state.[122]

State taxes

[edit]

Minnesota has a progressive income tax structure; the four brackets of state income tax rates are 5.35%, 7.05%, 7.85%, and 9.85%.[123] As of 2008 Minnesota was ranked 12th in the nation in per capita total state and local taxes.[124] In 2008 Minnesotans paid 10.2% of their income in state and local taxes; the U.S. average was 9.7%.[124] The state sales tax in Minnesota is 6.875%, but clothing, prescription drug medications and food items for home consumption are exempt.[125] The state legislature may allow municipalities to institute local sales taxes and special local taxes, such as the 0.5% supplemental sales tax in Minneapolis.[126] Excise taxes are levied on alcohol, tobacco, and motor fuel. The state imposes a use tax on items purchased elsewhere but used within Minnesota.[125] Owners of real property in Minnesota pay property tax to their county, municipality, school district, and special taxing districts.

 

Culture

[edit]

Fine and performing arts

[edit]
The Minneapolis Institute of Art's Neoclassical north facade, designed by McKim, Mead, and White
Sculpture of St. Urho in Menahga, Minnesota, in 2020

Minnesota's leading fine art museums include the Minneapolis Institute of Art, the Walker Art Center, the Frederick R. Weisman Art Museum, and The Museum of Russian Art (TMORA). All are in Minneapolis. The Minnesota Orchestra and the Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra are prominent full-time professional musical ensembles who perform concerts and offer educational programs to the Twin Cities' community. The world-renowned Guthrie Theater moved into a new Minneapolis facility in 2006, boasting three stages and overlooking the Mississippi River. Attendance at theatrical, musical, and comedy events in the area is strong. In the United States, Minneapolis's number of theater companies ranks behind only New York City's,[127] and about 2.3 million theater tickets were sold in the Twin Cities annually as of 2006.[128] The Minnesota Fringe Festival in Minneapolis is an annual celebration of theatre, dance, improvisation, puppetry, kids' shows, visual art, and musicals with more than 800 performances over 11 days. It is the country's largest non-juried performing arts festival.[129]

Literature

[edit]

The rigors and rewards of pioneer life on the prairie are the subject of Giants in the Earth by Ole Rolvaag and the Little House series of children's books by Laura Ingalls Wilder. Small-town life is portrayed grimly by Sinclair Lewis in the novel Main Street, and more gently and affectionately by Garrison Keillor in his tales of Lake Wobegon. St. Paul native F. Scott Fitzgerald writes of the social insecurities and aspirations of the young city in stories such as Winter Dreams and The Ice Palace (published in Flappers and Philosophers). Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's epic poem The Song of Hiawatha was inspired by Minnesota and names of many of the state's places and bodies of water. Minnesota native Bob Dylan won the 2016 Nobel Prize in Literature. Science fiction writer Marissa Lingen lives here.

Entertainment

[edit]
First Avenue nightclub, the heart of Minnesota's music community[60]

Minnesota musicians include Prince, Bob Dylan, Eddie Cochran, The Andrews Sisters, The Castaways, The Trashmen, Soul Asylum, David Ellefson, Chad Smith, John Wozniak, Hüsker Dü, Semisonic, The Replacements, Owl City, Holly Henry, Motion City Soundtrack, Atmosphere, and Dessa. Minnesotans helped shape the history of music through popular American culture: the Andrews Sisters' "Boogie Woogie Bugle Boy" was an iconic tune of World War II, while the Trashmen's "Surfin' Bird" and Bob Dylan epitomize two sides of the 1960s. In the 1980s, influential hit radio groups and musicians included Prince, The Original 7ven, Jimmy Jam & Terry Lewis, The Jets, Lipps Inc., and Information Society.

Minnesotans have also made significant contributions to comedy, theater, media, and film. The comic strip Peanuts was created by St. Paul native Charles M. Schulz. A Prairie Home Companion which first aired in 1974, became a long-running comedy radio show on National Public Radio. A cult sci-fi cable TV show, Mystery Science Theater 3000, was created by Joel Hodgson in Hopkins, and Minneapolis, MN. Another popular comedy staple developed in the 1990s, The Daily Show, was originated through Lizz Winstead and Madeleine Smithberg.

Joel and Ethan Coen, Terry Gilliam, Bill Pohlad, and Mike Todd contributed to the art of filmmaking as writers, directors, and producers. Notable actors from Minnesota include Loni Anderson, Richard Dean Anderson, James Arness, Jessica Biel, Rachael Leigh Cook, Julia Duffy, Mike Farrell, Judy Garland, Peter Graves, Josh Hartnett, Garrett Hedlund, Tippi Hedren, Jessica Lange, Kelly Lynch, E.G. Marshall, Laura Osnes, Melissa Peterman, Chris Pratt, Marion Ross, Jane Russell, Winona Ryder, Seann William Scott, Kevin Sorbo, Lea Thompson, Vince Vaughn, Jesse Ventura, James Hong, and Steve Zahn.

[edit]
A youth fiddle performance at the Minnesota State Fair

Stereotypical traits of Minnesotans include "Minnesota nice", Lutheranism, a strong sense of community and shared culture, and a distinctive brand of North Central American English sprinkled with Scandinavian expressions. Potlucks, usually with a variety of hotdishes, are popular small-town church activities. A small segment of the Scandinavian population attend a traditional lutefisk dinner to celebrate Christmas. Life in Minnesota has also been depicted or used as a backdrop, in movies such as Fargo, Grumpy Old Men, Grumpier Old Men, Juno, Drop Dead Gorgeous, Young Adult, A Serious Man, New in Town, Rio, The Mighty Ducks films, and in famous television series like Little House on the Prairie, The Mary Tyler Moore Show, The Golden Girls, Coach, The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, How I Met Your Mother and Fargo. Major movies shot on location in Minnesota include That Was Then... This Is Now, Purple Rain, Airport, Beautiful Girls, North Country, Untamed Heart, Feeling Minnesota, Jingle All The Way, A Simple Plan, and The Mighty Ducks films.

The Minnesota State Fair, advertised as The Great Minnesota Get-Together, is an icon of state culture. In a state of 5.5 million people, there were more than 1.8 million visitors to the fair in 2014, setting a new attendance record.[130] The fair covers the variety of Minnesota life, including fine art, science, agriculture, food preparation, 4-H displays, music, the midway, and corporate merchandising. It is known for its displays of seed art, butter sculptures of dairy princesses, the birthing barn, and the "fattest pig" competition. In September 1927, John Philip Sousa and his band gave the premiere performance of "The Minnesota March" at the fair before a grandstand crowd of 12,000.[131] One can also find dozens of varieties of food on a stick, such as Pronto Pups, cheese curds, and deep-fried candy bars. On a smaller scale, many of these attractions are offered at numerous county fairs.

Other large annual festivals include the Saint Paul Winter Carnival, the Minnesota Renaissance Festival, Minneapolis' Aquatennial and Mill City Music Festival, Moondance Jam in Walker, the Judy Garland Festival in Grand Rapids, the Eelpout Festival on Leech Lake, and the WE Fest in Detroit Lakes.

Health

[edit]
The Mayo Clinic in Rochester

Minnesotans have low rates of premature death, infant mortality, cardiovascular disease, and occupational fatalities.[132][133] They have long life expectancies,[134] and high rates of health insurance and regular exercise.[132][135][136] These and other measures have led two groups to rank Minnesota as the healthiest state in the nation; however, in one of these rankings, Minnesota descended from first to sixth in the nation between 2005 and 2009 because of low levels of public health funding and the prevalence of binge drinking.[132][137] While overall health indicators are strong, Minnesota does have significant health disparities in minority populations.[138]

On October 1, 2007, the Freedom to Breathe Act took effect, outlawing smoking in restaurants and bars in Minnesota.[139]

The Minnesota Department of Health is the primary state health agency responsible for public policy and regulation. Medical care in the state is provided by a comprehensive network of hospitals and clinics operated by a number of large providers including Allina Hospitals & Clinics, CentraCare Health System, Essentia Health, HealthPartners, M Health Fairview and the Mayo Clinic Health System. There are two teaching hospitals and medical schools in Minnesota. The University of Minnesota Medical School is a high-rated teaching institution that has made a number of breakthroughs in treatment, and its research activities contribute significantly to the state's growing biotechnology industry.[140] The Mayo Clinic, a world-renowned hospital based in Rochester, was founded by William Worrall Mayo, an immigrant from England.[141][142]

U.S. News & World Report's 2020–21 survey ranked 4,554 hospitals in the country in 12 specialized fields of care, and placed the Mayo Clinic in the top four in most fields. The hospital ranked first on the best hospitals honor roll. The only specialty where it fell outside the top ten was ophthalmology.[143] The Mayo Clinic and the University of Minnesota are partners in the Minnesota Partnership for Biotechnology and Medical Genomics, a state-funded program that conducts research into cancer, Alzheimer's disease, heart health, obesity, and other areas.[144]

Education

[edit]
The Richardsonian Romanesque Pillsbury Hall (1889) is one of the oldest buildings on the University of Minnesota Minneapolis campus.

One of the first acts of the Minnesota Legislature when it opened in 1858 was the creation of a normal school in Winona. Minnesota's commitment to education has contributed to a literate and well-educated populace. In 2009, according to the U.S. Census Bureau, Minnesota had the second-highest proportion of high school graduates, with 91.5% of people 25 and older holding a high school diploma, and the tenth-highest proportion of people with bachelor's degrees.[145] In 2015, Minneapolis was named the nation's "Most Literate City", while St. Paul placed fourth, according to a major annual survey.[146] In a 2013 study conducted by the National Center for Educational Statistics comparing the performance of eighth-grade students internationally in math and science, Minnesota ranked eighth in the world and third in the United States, behind Massachusetts and Vermont.[147] In 2014, Minnesota students earned the tenth-highest average composite score in the nation on the ACT exam.[148] In 2013, nationwide in per-student public education spending, Minnesota ranked 21st.[149] While Minnesota has chosen not to implement school vouchers,[150] it is home to the first charter school.[151]

The state supports a network of public universities and colleges, including 37 institutions in the Minnesota State Colleges and Universities System, and five major campuses of the University of Minnesota system. It is also home to more than 20 private colleges and universities, six of which rank among the nation's top 100 liberal arts colleges, according to U.S. News & World Report.[152]

Transportation

[edit]
The Aerial Lift Bridge at Duluth

Transportation in Minnesota is overseen by the Minnesota Department of Transportation (MnDOT) at the state level and by regional and local governments at the local level. Principal transportation corridors radiate from the Twin Cities metropolitan area and along interstate corridors in Greater Minnesota. The major Interstate highways are Interstate 35 (I-35), I-90, and I-94, with I-35 and I-94 connecting the Minneapolis–St. Paul area, and I-90 traveling east–west along the southern edge of the state.[153] In 2006, a constitutional amendment was passed that required sales and use taxes on motor vehicles to fund transportation, with at least 40% dedicated to public transit.[154] There are nearly two dozen rail corridors in Minnesota, most of which go through Minneapolis–St. Paul or Duluth.[155] There is water transportation along the Mississippi River system and from the ports of Lake Superior.[156]

Two Metro Green Line trains on the University of Minnesota–Twin Cities campus

Minnesota's principal airport is Minneapolis–St. Paul International Airport (MSP), a major passenger and freight hub for Delta Air Lines and Sun Country Airlines. Most other domestic carriers serve the airport. Large commercial jet service is provided at Duluth and Rochester, with scheduled commuter service to four smaller cities via Delta Connection carriers SkyWest Airlines, Compass Airlines, and Endeavor Air.[157]

Public transit services are available in the regional urban centers in Minnesota including Metro Transit in the Twin Cities, opt-out suburban operators Minnesota Valley Transit Authority, SouthWest Transit, Plymouth Metrolink, Maple Grove Transit and others. In Greater Minnesota transit services are provided by city systems such as Duluth Transit Authority, Mankato Transit System, MATBUS (Fargo-Moorhead), Rochester Public Transit, Saint Cloud Metro Bus, Winona Public Transit and others. Dial-a-Ride service is available for persons with disabilities in a majority of Minnesota counties.[158]

In addition to bus services, Amtrak's daily Empire Builder (Chicago–Seattle/Portland) train runs through Minnesota, calling at the Saint Paul Union Depot and five other stations.[159] Intercity bus providers include Jefferson Lines, Greyhound, and Megabus. Local public transit is provided by bus networks in the larger cities and by two rail services. The Northstar Line commuter rail service runs from Big Lake to the Target Field station in downtown Minneapolis. From there, light rail runs to Saint Paul Union Depot on the Green Line, and to the MSP airport and the Mall of America via the Blue Line.

Law and government

[edit]
The historical coat of arms of Minnesota in 1876

Minnesota is governed pursuant to the Minnesota Constitution, which was adopted on October 13, 1857, roughly one year before statehood.[160] Like all U.S. states and the federal government, Minnesota has a republican system of political representation with power divided into three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial.[161] The state constitution includes a bill of rights that reaffirms many of the same rights and freedoms as its federal counterpart, with some protected more strongly and explicitly.[160]

Executive

[edit]
Governor Tim Walz

The executive branch is led by Minnesota's governor, currently Tim Walz, a DFLer who took office on January 7, 2019. Walz was also Kamala Harris's running mate in the 2024 United States presidential election. As chief executive, the governor appoints the heads of state agencies and is responsible for faithful execution of the law. As commander-in-chief of the state's armed forces, the governor also has command and control over the Minnesota National Guard.[162] A cabinet consisting of the lieutenant governor and the heads of Minnesota's 22 state agencies consults and assists the governor in the business of state government.[163]

Aside from the governor and lieutenant governor, who are elected on a joint ticket, Minnesotans separately elect three other constitutional officers: a secretary of state, an attorney general, and a state auditor.[162][c][d][e] These five "executive officers" together constitute the Executive Council, which has certain statutory responsibilities in matters of state finance, emergency management, and public lands administration.[169]

Constitutional officeholders:

Legislature

[edit]
The Minnesota State Capitol in Saint Paul, designed by Cass Gilbert

The Minnesota Legislature is a bicameral body consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The state has 67 districts, each with about 60,000 people. Each district has one senator and two representatives, each senatorial district being divided into A and B sections for members of the House. Senators serve for four years and representatives for two years.

Since 2023, both the House and Senate have had a slim DFL majority.[170]

Judiciary

[edit]

Minnesota's court system has three levels. Most cases start in the district courts, which are courts of general jurisdiction. There are 279 district court judgeships in ten judicial districts. Appeals from the trial courts and challenges to certain governmental decisions are heard by the Minnesota Court of Appeals, consisting of 19 judges who typically sit in three-judge panels. The seven-justice Minnesota Supreme Court hears all appeals from the tax court, the workers' compensation court of appeals, first-degree murder convictions, and discretionary appeals from the court of appeals; it also has original jurisdiction over election disputes.[171]

Two specialized courts within administrative agencies have been established: the workers' compensation court of appeals, and the tax court, which deals with non-criminal tax cases.

Supreme Court Justices[172]

Associate Justices

Regional

[edit]

In addition to the city and county levels of government found in the United States, Minnesota has other entities that provide governmental oversight and planning. Regional development commissions (RDCs) provide technical assistance to local governments in the broad multi-county areas of the state. Along with this Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs), such as the Metropolitan Council, provide planning and oversight of land use actions in metropolitan areas. Many lakes and rivers are overseen by watershed districts and soil and water conservation districts.

Federal

[edit]

Minnesota's United States senators are Democrats Amy Klobuchar and Tina Smith. The state has eight congressional districts; they are represented by Brad Finstad (1st district; R), Angie Craig (2nd; DFL), Kelly Morrison (3rd; DFL), Betty McCollum (4th; DFL), Ilhan Omar (5th; DFL), Tom Emmer (6th; R), Michelle Fischbach (7th; R), and Pete Stauber (8th; R).

Federal court cases are heard in the United States District Court for the District of Minnesota, in Minneapolis, St. Paul, Duluth, and Fergus Falls. Appeals are heard by the Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals in St. Louis, Missouri and St. Paul.

Tribal

[edit]

The State of Minnesota was created by the United States federal government in the traditional and cultural range of lands occupied by the Dakota and Anishinaabe peoples as well as other Native American groups. After many years of unequal treaties and forced resettlement by the state and federal government, the tribes re-organized into sovereign tribal governments. Today, the tribal governments are divided into 11 semi-autonomous reservations that negotiate with the U.S. and the state on a bilateral basis:

Four Dakota Mdewakanton communities:

Seven Anishinaabe reservations:

The first six of the Anishinaabe bands compose the Minnesota Chippewa Tribe, the collective federally recognized tribal government of the Bois Forte, Fond du Lac, Grand Portage, Leech Lake, Mille Lacs, and White Earth reservations.

Politics

[edit]
United States presidential election results for Minnesota[173]
Year Republican Democratic Third party(ies)
No.  % No.  % No.  %
2024 1,519,032 46.68% 1,656,979 50.92% 77,909 2.39%
2020 1,484,065 45.28% 1,717,077 52.40% 76,029 2.32%
2016 1,323,232 44.93% 1,367,825 46.44% 254,176 8.63%
2012 1,320,225 44.96% 1,546,167 52.65% 70,169 2.39%
2008 1,275,409 43.82% 1,573,354 54.06% 61,606 2.12%
2004 1,346,695 47.61% 1,445,014 51.09% 36,678 1.30%
2000 1,109,659 45.50% 1,168,266 47.91% 160,760 6.59%
1996 766,476 34.96% 1,120,438 51.10% 305,726 13.94%
1992 747,841 31.85% 1,020,997 43.48% 579,110 24.66%
1988 962,337 45.90% 1,109,471 52.91% 24,982 1.19%
1984 1,032,603 49.54% 1,036,364 49.72% 15,482 0.74%
1980 873,241 42.56% 954,174 46.50% 224,538 10.94%
1976 819,395 42.02% 1,070,440 54.90% 60,096 3.08%
1972 898,269 51.58% 802,346 46.07% 41,037 2.36%
1968 658,643 41.46% 857,738 54.00% 72,129 4.54%
1964 559,624 36.00% 991,117 63.76% 3,721 0.24%
1960 757,915 49.16% 779,933 50.58% 4,039 0.26%
1956 719,302 53.68% 617,525 46.08% 3,178 0.24%
1952 763,211 55.33% 608,458 44.11% 7,814 0.57%
1948 483,617 39.89% 692,966 57.16% 35,643 2.94%
1944 527,416 46.86% 589,864 52.41% 8,249 0.73%
1940 596,274 47.66% 644,196 51.49% 10,718 0.86%
1936 350,461 31.01% 698,811 61.84% 80,703 7.14%
1932 363,959 36.29% 600,806 59.91% 38,078 3.80%
1928 560,977 57.77% 396,451 40.83% 13,548 1.40%
1924 420,759 51.18% 55,913 6.80% 345,474 42.02%
1920 519,421 70.59% 142,994 19.43% 73,423 9.98%
1916 179,544 46.35% 179,152 46.25% 28,668 7.40%
1912 64,334 19.25% 106,426 31.84% 163,459 48.91%
1908 195,843 59.11% 109,401 33.02% 26,060 7.87%
1904 216,651 73.98% 55,187 18.84% 21,022 7.18%
1900 190,461 60.21% 112,901 35.69% 12,949 4.09%
1896 193,503 56.62% 139,735 40.89% 8,524 2.49%
1892 122,823 45.96% 100,920 37.76% 43,495 16.28%
1888 142,492 54.12% 104,385 39.65% 16,408 6.23%
1884 111,685 58.78% 70,065 36.87% 8,267 4.35%
1880 93,902 62.28% 53,315 35.36% 3,553 2.36%
1876 72,955 58.80% 48,587 39.16% 2,533 2.04%
1872 55,708 61.27% 35,211 38.73% 0 0.00%
1868 43,722 60.88% 28,096 39.12% 0 0.00%
1864 25,055 59.06% 17,367 40.94% 0 0.00%
1860 22,069 63.53% 11,920 34.31% 748 2.15%

Minnesota is known for a politically active citizenry, and populism has been a long-standing force among the state's political parties.[174][175] Minnesota has a consistently high voter turnout. In the 2008 U.S. presidential election, 78.2% of eligible Minnesotans voted – the highest percentage of any U.S. state – versus the national average of 61.2%.[176] That figure was surpassed in 2020, when 79.96% of registered voters participated in the general election.[177] Voters can register on election day at their polling places with evidence of residency.[178]

Hubert Humphrey brought national attention to the state with his address at the 1948 Democratic National Convention. Minnesotans have consistently cast their Electoral College votes for Democratic presidential candidates since 1976, longer than any other state. Minnesota is the only state in the nation that did not vote for Ronald Reagan in either of his presidential campaigns. Minnesota has voted for the Democratic nominee in every presidential election since 1960, with the exception of 1972, when the state was won by Republican Richard Nixon.

Both the Democratic and Republican parties have major-party status in Minnesota, but its state-level Democratic party has a different name, officially known as the Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party (DFL). It was formed out of a 1944 alliance of the Minnesota Democratic and Farmer–Labor parties.

The state has had active third-party movements. The Reform Party, now the Independence Party, was able to elect former mayor of Brooklyn Park and professional wrestler Jesse Ventura to the governorship in 1998. The Independence Party has received enough support to keep major-party status. The Green Party, while no longer having major-party status, has a large presence in municipal government,[179] notably in Minneapolis and Duluth, where it competes directly with the DFL party for local offices. Major-party status in Minnesota (which grants state funding for elections) is reserved for parties whose candidates receive five percent or more of the vote in any statewide election (e.g., governor, secretary of state, U.S. president).

The state's U.S. Senate seats was split in the early 1990s and in the 108th and 109th Congresses, Minnesota's congressional delegation was split, with four representatives and one senator from each party. In the 2006 mid-term election, Democrats were elected to all state offices, except governor and lieutenant governor, where Republicans Tim Pawlenty and Carol Molnau narrowly won reelection. The DFL posted double-digit gains in both houses of the legislature, elected Amy Klobuchar to the U.S. Senate, and increased the party's U.S. House caucus by one. Keith Ellison (DFL) was elected as the first African American U.S. Representative from Minnesota, as well as the first Muslim elected to Congress nationwide.[180] In 2008, DFLer and former comedian and radio talk show host Al Franken defeated incumbent Republican Norm Coleman in the U.S. Senate race by 312 votes out of three million cast.

In the 2010 election, Republicans took control of both chambers of the Minnesota legislature for the first time in 38 years and, with Mark Dayton's election, the DFL party took the governor's office for the first time in 20 years. Two years later, the DFL regained control of both houses, and with Dayton in office, the party had same-party control of both the legislative and executive branches for the first time since 1990. Two years later, the Republicans regained control of the Minnesota House,[181] and in 2016, the GOP also regained control of the State Senate.[182]

In 2018, the DFL retook control of the Minnesota House, while electing DFLer Tim Walz as Governor.

In a 2020 study, Minnesota was ranked as the 15th easiest state for citizens to vote in.[183]

Media

[edit]
KSTP studios

The Twin Cities area is the fifteenth largest media market in the United States, as ranked by Nielsen Media Research. The state's other top markets are Fargo–Moorhead (118th nationally), Duluth–Superior (137th), Rochester–Mason City–Austin (152nd), and Mankato (200th).[184]

Broadcast television in Minnesota and the Upper Midwest started on April 27, 1948, when KSTP-TV began broadcasting.[185] Hubbard Broadcasting, which owns KSTP, is now the only locally owned television company in Minnesota. Twin Cities CBS station WCCO-TV and FOX station KMSP-TV are owned-and-operated by their respective networks. There are 39 analog broadcast stations and 23 digital channels broadcast over Minnesota.

The four largest daily newspapers are the Star Tribune in Minneapolis, the Pioneer Press in Saint Paul, the Duluth News Tribune in Duluth, and the Post-Bulletin in Rochester. The Minnesota Daily is the largest student-run newspaper in the U.S.[186] Sites offering daily news on the Web include The UpTake, MinnPost, the Twin Cities Daily Planet, business news site Finance and Commerce and Washington D.C.–based Minnesota Independent. Weekly and monthly publications such as Minnesota Monthly are available.

Two of the largest public radio networks, Minnesota Public Radio (MPR) and Public Radio International (PRI), are based in the state. MPR has the largest audience of any regional public radio network in the nation, broadcasting on 46 radio stations as of 2019.[187][188] PRI weekly provides more than 400 hours of programming to almost 800 affiliates.[189] The state's oldest radio station, KUOM-AM, was launched in 1922 and is among the 10-oldest radio stations in the United States. The University of Minnesota-owned station is still on the air, and since 1993 broadcasts a college rock format.

Sports, recreation and tourism

[edit]

Minnesota has an active program of organized amateur and professional sports. Tourism has become an important industry, especially in the Lake region. In the North Country, what had been an industrial area focused on mining and timber has largely been transformed into a vacation destination. Popular interest in the environment and environmentalism, added to traditional interests in hunting and fishing, has attracted a large urban audience within driving range.[190]

Organized sports

[edit]
The University of North Dakota and St. Cloud State University during the WCHA Final Five at the Xcel Energy Center

Minnesota has professional men's teams in all major sports.

The Minnesota Vikings have played in the National Football League since their admission as an expansion franchise in 1961. They played in Metropolitan Stadium from 1961 through 1981 and in the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome from 1982 until its demolition after the 2013 season for the construction of the team's new home, U.S. Bank Stadium. The Vikings' current stadium hosted Super Bowl LII in February 2018. Super Bowl XXVI was played in the Metrodome in 1992. The Vikings have advanced to the Super Bowl Super Bowl IV, Super Bowl VIII, Super Bowl IX, and Super Bowl XI, losing all four games to their AFC/AFL opponent.

The Minnesota Twins have played in the Major League Baseball in the Twin Cities since 1961. The Twins began play as the original Washington Senators, a founding member of the American League in 1901, relocating to Minnesota in 1961. The Twins won the 1987 and 1991 World Series in seven-game matches where the home team was victorious in all games. The Twins also advanced to the 1965 World Series, where they lost to the Los Angeles Dodgers in seven games. The team has played at Target Field since 2010.

The Minneapolis Lakers of the National Basketball Association played in the Minneapolis Auditorium from 1947 to 1960, after which they relocated to Los Angeles. The Minnesota Timberwolves joined the NBA in 1989, and have played in Target Center since 1990.

The National Hockey League's Minnesota Wild play in St. Paul's Xcel Energy Center, and reached 300 consecutive sold-out games on January 16, 2008.[191] Previously, the Minnesota North Stars competed in NHL from 1967 to 1993, which played in and lost the 1981 and 1991 Stanley Cup Finals.

Minnesota United FC joined Major League Soccer as an expansion team in 2017, having played in the lower-division North American Soccer League from 2010 to 2016. The team plays at Allianz Field in St. Paul.[192] Previous professional soccer teams have included the Minnesota Kicks, which played at Metropolitan Stadium from 1976 to 1981, and the Minnesota Strikers from 1984 to 1988.

Minnesota also has minor-league professional sports teams. The Minnesota Swarm of the National Lacrosse League played at the Xcel Energy Center until the team moved to Georgia in 2015. The St. Paul Saints, who play at CHS Field in St. Paul, are the Triple-A minor league affiliate of the Minnesota Twins.

Professional women's sports include the Minnesota Lynx of the Women's National Basketball Association, winners of the 2011, 2013, 2015, and 2017 WNBA Championships, Minnesota Aurora FC of the United Soccer League W-League, the Minnesota Vixen of the Independent Women's Football League, the Minnesota Valkyrie of the Legends Football League, the Minnesota Frost of the Professional Women's Hockey League, and the Minnesota Whitecaps of the National Women's Hockey League.

The Twin Cities campus of the University of Minnesota is a National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I school competing in the Big Ten Conference. Four additional schools in the state compete in NCAA Division I ice hockey: the University of Minnesota Duluth; Minnesota State University, Mankato; St. Cloud State University and Bemidji State University. There are nine NCAA Division II colleges in the Northern Sun Intercollegiate Conference, and twenty NCAA Division III colleges in the Minnesota Intercollegiate Athletic Conference and Upper Midwest Athletic Conference.[193][194]

Minneapolis has hosted the NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship in 1951, 1992, 2001, and 2019.

The Hazeltine National Golf Club has hosted the U.S. Open, U.S. Women's Open, U.S. Senior Open and PGA Championship. The course also hosted the Ryder Cup in the fall of 2016, when it became one of two courses in the U.S. to host all major golf competitions. The Ryder Cup is scheduled to return in 2028.[195]

Interlachen Country Club has hosted the U.S. Open, U.S. Women's Open, and Solheim Cup.

Winter Olympic Games medalists from the state include twelve of the twenty members of the gold medal 1980 ice hockey team (coached by Minnesota native Herb Brooks) and the bronze medalist U.S. men's curling team in the 2006 Winter Olympics, as well as the gold medal-winning team from Duluth at the 2018 Winter Olympics. Swimmer Tom Malchow won an Olympic gold medal in the 2000 Summer games and a silver medal in 1996.

Grandma's Marathon is run every summer along the scenic North Shore of Lake Superior, and the Twin Cities Marathon winds around lakes and the Mississippi River during the peak of the fall color season. Farther north, Eveleth is the location of the United States Hockey Hall of Fame.

Outdoor recreation

[edit]
Fishing on Bde Maka Ska in Minneapolis[196]

Minnesotans participate in high levels of physical activity,[197] and many of these activities are outdoors. The strong interest of Minnesotans in environmentalism has been attributed to the popularity of these pursuits.[198]

An old sauna cabin of Listening Point on the shores of Burntside Lake in Morse Township, Minnesota

In the warmer months, these activities often involve water. Weekend and longer trips to family cabins on Minnesota's numerous lakes are a way of life for many residents. Activities include water sports such as water skiing, which originated in the state,[199] boating, canoeing, and fishing. More than 36% of Minnesotans fish, second only to Alaska.[200]

Fishing does not cease when the lakes freeze; ice fishing has been around since the arrival of early Scandinavian immigrants.[201] Minnesotans have learned to embrace their long, harsh winters in ice sports such as skating, hockey, curling, and broomball, and snow sports such as cross-country skiing, alpine skiing, luge, snowshoeing, and snowmobiling.[202] Minnesota is the only U.S. state where bandy is played.[203]

State and national forests and the 72 state parks are used year-round for hunting, camping, and hiking. There are almost 20,000 miles (32,000 km) of snowmobile trails statewide.[204] Minnesota has more miles of bike trails than any other state,[205] and a growing network of hiking trails, including the 235-mile (378 km) Superior Hiking Trail in the northeast.[206] Many hiking and bike trails are used for cross-country skiing during the winter.

See also

[edit]
 

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Elevation adjusted to North American Vertical Datum of 1988
  2. ^ Hmong people are a stateless group; the majority of Hmong in Minnesota have immigrated from either Laos or Thailand.
  3. ^ The secretary of state is custodian of state records and the state seal, registers businesses, and administers elections. The secretary of state also processes notary public applications and administers Minnesota's address confidentiality program for victims of crime, among other responsibilities.[164]
  4. ^ The attorney general is the chief law officer for the state of Minnesota, representing state agencies in legal proceedings and issuing written opinions on questions of law. As chief law officer, the attorney general also enforces state consumer protection and antitrust laws, regulates charities, and advocates for people and small businesses in utilities matters, among other responsibilities.[165]
  5. ^ The state auditor supervises and audits the finances of Minnesota's 3,600 local governments, which altogether spend over $40 billion annually.[166] The state auditor also performs under contract the annual single audit of federal programs administered by state agencies and their subrecipients. Public expenditures overseen by the state auditor thus exceed standalone state spending by 15.3 percent.[167][168]

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[edit]
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[edit]

Culture and history

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Government

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Maps and demographics

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Tourism and recreation

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Preceded by List of U.S. states by date of statehood
Admitted on May 11, 1858 (32nd)
Succeeded by

46°N 94°W / 46°N 94°W / 46; -94 (State of Minnesota)

 

 

A girl holding a newspaper with the headline: 'The Eagle Has Landed' – Two Men Walk on the Moon
A girl holding The Washington Post newspaper about the first Moon landing – Apollo 11, July 21, 1969

News is information about current events. This may be provided through many different media: word of mouth, printing, postal systems, broadcasting, electronic communication, or through the testimony of observers and witnesses to events. News is sometimes called "hard news" to differentiate it from soft media.

Subject matters for news reports include war, government, politics, education, health, economy, business, fashion, sport, entertainment, and the environment, as well as quirky or unusual events. Government proclamations, concerning royal ceremonies, laws, taxes, public health, and criminals, have been dubbed news since ancient times. Technological and social developments, often driven by government communication and espionage networks, have increased the speed with which news can spread, as well as influenced its content.

Throughout history, people have transported new information through oral means. Having developed in China over centuries, newspapers became established in Europe during the early modern period. In the 20th century, radio and television became an important means of transmitting news. Whilst in the 21st century, the internet has also begun to play a similar role.

Meaning

[edit]

Etymology

[edit]

The English word "news" developed in the 14th century as a special use of the plural form of "new". In Middle English, the equivalent word was newes, like the French nouvelles. Similar developments are found in the Slavic languages – namely cognates from Serbo-Croatian novost (from nov, "new"), Czech and Slovak noviny (from nový, "new"), the Polish nowiny (pronounced noviney), the Bulgarian novini and Russian novosti – and likewise in the Celtic languages: the Welsh newyddion (from newydd) and the Cornish nowodhow (from nowydh).[1][2]

Jessica Garretson Finch is credited with coining the phrase "current events" while teaching at Barnard College in the 1890s.[3]

Newness

[edit]

As its name implies, "news" typically connotes the presentation of new information.[4][5] The newness of news gives it an uncertain quality which distinguishes it from the more careful investigations of history or other scholarly disciplines.[5][6][7] Whereas historians tend to view events as causally related manifestations of underlying processes, news stories tend to describe events in isolation, and to exclude discussion of the relationships between them.[8] News conspicuously describes the world in the present or immediate past, even when the most important aspects of a news story have occurred long in the past—or are expected to occur in the future. To make the news, an ongoing process must have some "peg", an event in time that anchors it to the present moment.[8][9] Relatedly, news often addresses aspects of reality which seem unusual, deviant, or out of the ordinary.[10] Hence the famous dictum that "Dog Bites Man" is not news, but "Man Bites Dog" is.[11]

Another corollary of the newness of news is that, as new technology enables new media to disseminate news more quickly, 'slower' forms of communication may move away from 'news' towards 'analysis'.[12]

Commodity

[edit]

According to some theories, "news" is whatever the news industry sells.[13] Journalism, broadly understood along the same lines, is the act or occupation of collecting and providing news.[14][15] From a commercial perspective, news is simply one input, along with paper (or an electronic server) necessary to prepare a final product for distribution.[16] A news agency supplies this resource "wholesale" and publishers enhance it for retail.[17][18]

Tone

[edit]

Most purveyors of news value impartiality, neutrality, and objectivity, despite the inherent difficulty of reporting without political bias.[19] Perception of these values has changed greatly over time as sensationalized 'tabloid journalism' has risen in popularity. Michael Schudson has argued that before the era of World War I and the concomitant rise of propaganda, journalists were not aware of the concept of bias in reporting, let alone actively correcting for it.[20] News is also sometimes said to portray the truth, but this relationship is elusive and qualified.[21]

Paradoxically, another property commonly attributed to news is sensationalism, the disproportionate focus on, and exaggeration of, emotive stories for public consumption.[22][23] This news is also not unrelated to gossip, the human practice of sharing information about other humans of mutual interest.[24] A common sensational topic is violence; hence another news dictum, "if it bleeds, it leads".[25]

Newsworthiness

[edit]

Newsworthiness is defined as a subject having sufficient relevance to the public or a special audience to warrant press attention or coverage.[26]

News values seem to be common across cultures. People seem to be interested in news to the extent which it has a big impact, describes conflicts, happens nearby, involves well-known people, and deviates from the norms of everyday happenings.[27] War is a common news topic, partly because it involves unknown events that could pose personal danger.[28]

History

[edit]

Folk news

[edit]

Evidence suggests that cultures around the world have found a place for people to share stories about interesting new information. Among Zulus, Mongolians, Polynesians, and American Southerners, anthropologists have documented the practice of questioning travelers for news as a matter of priority.[29] Sufficiently important news would be repeated quickly and often, and could spread by word of mouth over a large geographic area.[30] Even as printing presses came into use in Europe, news for the general public often travelled orally via monks, travelers, town criers, etc.[31]

The news is also transmitted in public gathering places, such as the Greek forum and the Roman baths. Starting in England, coffeehouses served as important sites for the spread of news, even after telecommunications became widely available. The history of the coffee houses is traced from Arab countries, which was introduced in England in the 16th century.[32] In the Muslim world, people have gathered and exchanged news at mosques and other social places. Travelers on pilgrimages to Mecca traditionally stay at caravanserais, roadside inns, along the way, and these places have naturally served as hubs for gaining news of the world.[33] In late medieval Britain, reports ("tidings") of major events were a topic of great public interest, as chronicled in Chaucer's 1380 The House of Fame and other works.[34]

Government proclamations

[edit]
Woodcut by Tommaso Garzoni depicting a town crier with a trumpet

Before the invention of newspapers in the early 17th century, official government bulletins and edicts were circulated at times in some centralized empires.[35] The first documented use of an organized courier service for the diffusion of written documents is in Egypt, where Pharaohs used couriers for the diffusion of their decrees in the territory of the State (2400 BC).[36] Julius Caesar regularly publicized his heroic deeds in Gaul, and upon becoming dictator of Rome began publishing government announcements called Acta Diurna. These were carved in metal or stone and posted in public places.[37][38] In medieval England, parliamentary declarations were delivered to sheriffs for public display and reading at the market.[39]

Specially sanctioned messengers have been recognized in Vietnamese culture, among the Khasi people in India, and in the Fox and Winnebago cultures of the American midwest. The Zulu Kingdom used runners to quickly disseminate news. In West Africa, news can be spread by griots. In most cases, the official spreaders of news have been closely aligned with holders of political power.[40]

Town criers were a common means of conveying information to citydwellers. In thirteenth-century Florence, criers known as banditori arrived in the market regularly, to announce political news, to convoke public meetings, and to call the populace to arms. In 1307 and 1322–1325, laws were established governing their appointment, conduct, and salary. These laws stipulated how many times a banditoro was to repeat a proclamation (forty) and where in the city they were to read them.[41] Different declarations sometimes came with additional protocols; announcements regarding the plague were also to be read at the city gates.[42] These proclamations all used a standard format, beginning with an exordium—"The worshipful and most esteemed gentlemen of the Eight of Ward and Security of the city of Florence make it known, notify, and expressly command, to whosoever, of whatever status, rank, quality and condition"—and continuing with a statement (narratio), a request made upon the listeners (petitio), and the penalty to be exacted from those who would not comply (peroratio).[43] In addition to major declarations, bandi (announcements) might concern petty crimes, requests for information, and notices about missing slaves.[44] Niccolò Machiavelli was captured by the Medicis in 1513, following a bando calling for his immediate surrender.[45] Some town criers could be paid to include advertising along with news.[46]

Under the Ottoman Empire, official messages were regularly distributed at mosques, by traveling holy men, and by secular criers. These criers were sent to read official announcements in marketplaces, highways, and other well-traveled places, sometimes issuing commands and penalties for disobedience.[47]

Early news networks

[edit]

The spread of news has always been linked to the communications networks in place to disseminate it. Thus, political, religious, and commercial interests have historically controlled, expanded, and monitored communications channels by which news could spread. Postal services have long been closely entwined with the maintenance of political power in a large area.[48][49]

One of the imperial communication channels, called the "Royal Road" traversed the Assyrian Empire and served as a key source of its power.[50] The Roman Empire maintained a vast network of roads, known as cursus publicus, for similar purposes.[51]

Visible chains of long-distance signaling, known as optical telegraphy, have also been used throughout history to convey limited types of information. These can have ranged from smoke and fire signals to advanced systems using semaphore codes and telescopes.[52][53] The latter form of optical telegraph came into use in Japan, Britain, France, and Germany from the 1790s through the 1850s.[54][55]

Asia

[edit]
Reproduction of Kaiyuan Za Bao court newspaper from the Tang dynasty

The world's first written news may have originated in eighth century BCE China, where reports gathered by officials were eventually compiled as the Spring and Autumn Annals. The annals, whose compilation is attributed to Confucius, were available to a sizeable reading public and dealt with common news themes—though they straddle the line between news and history.[56] The Han dynasty is credited with developing one of the most effective imperial surveillance and communications networks in the ancient world.[57] Government-produced news sheets, called tipao, circulated among court officials during the late Han dynasty (second and third centuries AD). Between 713 and 734, the Kaiyuan Za Bao ("Bulletin of the Court") of the Chinese Tang dynasty published government news; it was handwritten on silk and read by government officials.[58] The court created a Bureau of Official Reports (Jin Zhouyuan) to centralize news distribution for the court.[59] Newsletters called ch'ao pao continued to be produced and gained wider public circulation in the following centuries.[60] In 1582 there was the first reference to privately published newssheets in Beijing, during the late Ming dynasty.[61][62]

Japan had effective communications and postal delivery networks at several points in its history, first in 646 with the Taika Reform and again during the Kamakura period from 1183 to 1333. The system depended on hikyaku, runners, and regularly spaced relay stations. By this method, news could travel between Kyoto and Kamakura in 5–7 days. Special horse-mounted messengers could move information at the speed of 170 kilometers per day.[55][63] The Japanese shogunates were less tolerant than the Chinese government of news circulation.[58] The postal system established during the Edo period was even more effective, with average speeds of 125–150 km/day and express speed of 200 km/day. This system was initially used only by the government, taking private communications only at exorbitant prices. Private services emerged and in 1668 established their own nakama (guild). They became even faster, and created an effective optical telegraphy system using flags by day and lanterns and mirrors by night.[55]

Europe

[edit]

In Europe, during the Middle Ages, elites relied on runners to transmit news over long distances. At 33 kilometres per day, a runner would take two months to bring a message across the Hanseatic League from Bruges to Riga.[64][65] In the early modern period, increased cross-border interaction created a rising need for information which was met by concise handwritten newssheets. The driving force of this new development was the commercial advantage provided by up-to-date news.[7][66]

In 1556, the government of Venice first published the monthly Notizie scritte, which cost one gazetta.[67] These avvisi were handwritten newsletters and used to convey political, military, and economic news quickly and efficiently to Italian cities (1500–1700)—sharing some characteristics of newspapers though usually not considered true newspapers.[68] Avvisi were sold by subscription under the auspices of military, religious, and banking authorities. Sponsorship flavored the contents of each series, which were circulated under many different names. Subscribers included clerics, diplomatic staff, and noble families. By the last quarter of the seventeenth century, long passages from avvisi were finding their way into published monthlies such as the Mercure de France and, in northern Italy, Pallade veneta.[69][70][71]

Some European postal routes in 1563

Postal services enabled merchants and monarchs to stay abreast of important information. For the Holy Roman Empire, Emperor Maximillian I in 1490 authorized two brothers from the Italian Tasso family, Francesco and Janetto, to create a network of courier stations linked by riders. They began with a communications line between Innsbruck and Mechelen and grew from there.[72] In 1505 this network expanded to Spain, new governed by Maximilian's son Philip. These riders could travel 180 kilometers in a day.[73] This system became the Imperial Reichspost, administered by Tasso descendants (subsequently known as Thurn-und-Taxis), who in 1587 received exclusive operating rights from the Emperor.[72] The French postal service and English postal service also began at this time, but did not become comprehensive until the early 1600s.[72][74][75] In 1620, the English system linked with Thurn-und-Taxis.[53]

These connections underpinned an extensive system of news circulation, with handwritten items bearing dates and places of origin. Centred in Germany, the network took in news from Russia, the Balkans, Italy, Britain, France, and the Netherlands.[76] The German lawyer Christoph von Scheurl and the Fugger house of Augsburg were prominent hubs in this network.[77] Letters describing historically significant events could gain wide circulation as news reports. Indeed, personal correspondence sometimes acted only as a convenient channel through which news could flow across a larger network.[78] A common type of business communication was a simple listing of current prices, the circulation of which quickened the flow of international trade.[79][80] Businesspeople also wanted to know about events related to shipping, the affairs of other businesses, and political developments.[79] Even after the advent of international newspapers, business owners still valued correspondence highly as a source of reliable news that would affect their enterprise.[81] Handwritten newsletters, which could be produced quickly for a limited clientele, also continued into the 1600s.[77]

Rise of the newspaper

[edit]
The London Gazette, "Published By Authority" (of the Stationers' Company) on 3 December 1909

The spread of paper and the printing press from China to Europe preceded a major advance in the transmission of news.[82] With the spread of printing presses and the creation of new markets in the 1500s, news underwent a shift from factual and precise economic reporting, to a more emotive and freewheeling format. (Private newsletters containing important intelligence therefore remained in use by people who needed to know.)[83] The first newspapers emerged in Germany in the early 1600s.[84] Relation aller Fürnemmen und gedenckwürdigen Historien, from 1605, is recognized as the world's first formalized 'newspaper';[85] while not a 'newspaper' in the modern sense, the Ancient Roman Acta Diurna served a similar purpose circa 131 BC.

The new format, which mashed together numerous unrelated and perhaps dubious reports from far-flung locations, created a radically new and jarring experience for its readers.[86] A variety of styles emerged, from single-story tales, to compilations, overviews, and personal and impersonal types of news analysis.[87]

News for public consumption was at first tightly controlled by governments. By 1530, England had created a licensing system for the press and banned "seditious opinions".[88] Under the Licensing Act, publication was restricted to approved presses—as exemplified by The London Gazette, which prominently bore the words: "Published By Authority".[89] Parliament allowed the Licensing Act to lapse in 1695, beginning a new era marked by Whig and Tory newspapers.[90] (During this era, the Stamp Act limited newspaper distribution simply by making them expensive to sell and buy.) In France, censorship was even more constant.[91] Consequently, many Europeans read newspapers originating from beyond their national borders—especially from the Dutch Republic, where publishers could evade state censorship.[92]

The new United States saw a newspaper boom beginning with the Revolutionary era, accelerated by spirited debates over the establishment of a new government, spurred on by subsidies contained in the 1792 Postal Service Act, and continuing into the 1800s.[93][94] American newspapers got many of their stories by copying reports from each other. Thus by offering free postage to newspapers wishing to exchange copies, the Postal Service Act subsidized a rapidly growing news network through which different stories could percolate.[95] Newspapers thrived during the colonization of the West, fueled by high literacy and a newspaper-loving culture.[96] By 1880, San Francisco rivaled New York in number of different newspapers and in printed newspaper copies per capita.[97] Boosters of new towns felt that newspapers covering local events brought legitimacy, recognition, and community.[98] The 1830s American, wrote Alexis de Tocqueville, was "a very civilized man prepared for a time to face life in the forest, plunging into the wilderness of the New World with his Bible, ax, and newspapers."[99] In France, the Revolution brought forth an abundance of newspapers and a new climate of press freedom, followed by a return to repression under Napoleon.[100] In 1792 the Revolutionaries set up a news ministry called the Bureau d'Esprit.[101]

Some newspapers published in the 1800s and after retained the commercial orientation characteristic of the private newsletters of the Renaissance. Economically oriented newspapers published new types of data enabled the advent of statistics, especially economic statistics which could inform sophisticated investment decisions.[102] These newspapers, too, became available for larger sections of society, not just elites, keen on investing some of their savings in the stock markets. Yet, as in the case other newspapers, the incorporation of advertising into the newspaper led to justified reservations about accepting newspaper information at face value.[103] Economic newspapers also became promoters of economic ideologies, such as Keynesianism in the mid-1900s.[104]

Newspapers came to sub-Saharan Africa via colonization. The first English-language newspaper in the area was The Royal Gazette and Sierra Leone Advertiser, established in 1801, and followed by The Royal Gold Coast Gazette and Commercial Intelligencer in 1822 and the Liberia Herald in 1826.[105] A number of nineteenth-century African newspapers were established by missionaries.[106] These newspapers by and large promoted the colonial governments and served the interests of European settlers by relaying news from Europe.[106] The first newspaper published in a native African language was the Muigwithania, published in Kikuyu by the Kenyan Central Association.[106] Muigwithania and other newspapers published by indigenous Africans took strong opposition stances, agitating strongly for African independence.[107] Newspapers were censored heavily during the colonial period—as well as after formal independence. Some liberalization and diversification took place in the 1990s.[108]

Newspapers were slow to spread to the Arab world, which had a stronger tradition of oral communication, and mistrust of the European approach to news reporting. By the end of the eighteenth century, the Ottoman Empire's leaders in Istanbul monitored the European press, but its contents were not disseminated for mass consumption.[109] Some of the first written news in modern North Africa arose in Egypt under Muhammad Ali, who developed the local paper industry and initiated the limited circulation of news bulletins called jurnals.[110] Beginning in the 1850s and 1860s, the private press began to develop in the multi-religious country of Lebanon.[111]

Newswire

[edit]

The development of the electrical telegraph, which often travelled along railroad lines, enabled news to travel faster, over longer distances.[112] (Days before Morse's Baltimore–Washington line transmitted the famous question, "What hath God wrought?", it transmitted the news that Henry Clay and Theodore Frelinghuysen had been chosen by the Whig nominating party.)[37] Telegraph networks enabled a new centralization of the news, in the hands of wire services concentrated in major cities. The modern form of these originated with Charles-Louis Havas, who founded Bureau Havas (later Agence France-Presse) in Paris. Havas began in 1832, using the French government's optical telegraph network. In 1840 he began using pigeons for communications to Paris, London, and Brussels. Havas began to use the electric telegraph when it became available.[113]

One of Havas's proteges, Bernhard Wolff, founded Wolffs Telegraphisches Bureau in Berlin in 1849.[114] Another Havas disciple, Paul Reuter, began collecting news from Germany and France in 1849, and in 1851 immigrated to London, where he established the Reuters news agency—specializing in news from the continent.[115] In 1863, William Saunders and Edward Spender formed the Central Press agency, later called the Press Association, to handle domestic news.[116] Just before insulated telegraph line crossed the English Channel in 1851, Reuter won the right to transmit stock exchange prices between Paris and London.[117] He maneuvered Reuters into a dominant global position with the motto "Follow the Cable", setting up news outposts across the British Empire in Alexandria (1865), Bombay (1866), Melbourne (1874), Sydney (1874), and Cape Town (1876).[117][118] In the United States, the Associated Press became a news powerhouse, gaining a lead position through an exclusive arrangement with the Western Union company.[119]

The telegraph ushered in a new global communications regime, accompanied by a restructuring of the national postal systems, and closely followed by the advent of telephone lines. With the value of international news at a premium, governments, businesses, and news agencies moved aggressively to reduce transmission times. In 1865, Reuters had the scoop on the Lincoln assassination, reporting the news in England twelve days after the event took place.[120] In 1866, an undersea telegraph cable successfully connected Ireland to Newfoundland (and thus the Western Union network) cutting trans-Atlantic transmission time from days to hours.[121][122][123] The transatlantic cable allowed fast exchange of information about the London and New York stock exchanges, as well as the New York, Chicago, and Liverpool commodity exchanges—for the price of $5–10, in gold, per word.[124] Transmitting On 11 May 1857, a young British telegraph operator in Delhi signaled home to alert the authorities of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The rebels proceeded to disrupt the British telegraph network, which was rebuilt with more redundancies.[125] In 1902–1903, Britain and the U.S. completed the circumtelegraphy of the planet with transpacific cables from Canada to Fiji and New Zealand (British Empire), and from the US to Hawaii and the occupied Philippines.[126] U.S. reassertions of the Monroe Doctrine notwithstanding, Latin America was a battleground of competing telegraphic interests until World War I, after which U.S. interests finally did consolidate their power in the hemisphere.[127]

World railway and telegraph system, 1900

By the turn of the century (i.e., c. 1900), Wolff, Havas, and Reuters formed a news cartel, dividing up the global market into three sections, in which each had more-or-less exclusive distribution rights and relationships with national agencies.[128] Each agency's area corresponded roughly to the colonial sphere of its mother country.[129] Reuters and the Australian national news service had an agreement to exchange news only with each other.[130] Due to the high cost of maintaining infrastructure, political goodwill, and global reach, newcomers found it virtually impossible to challenge the big three European agencies or the American Associated Press.[131] In 1890 Reuters (in partnership with the Press Association, England's major news agency for domestic stories) expanded into "soft" news stories for public consumption, about topics such as sports and "human interest".[132] In 1904, the big three wire services opened relations with Vestnik, the news agency of Czarist Russia, to their group, though they maintained their own reporters in Moscow.[133] During and after the Russian Revolution, the outside agencies maintained a working relationship with the Petrograd Telegraph Agency, renamed the Russian Telegraph Agency (ROSTA) and eventually the Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union (TASS).[134]

The Chinese Communist Party created its news agency, the Red China News Agency, in 1931; its primary responsibilities were the Red China newspaper and the internal Reference News. In 1937, the Party renamed it Xinhua News Agency, which became the official news agency of the People's Republic of China in 1949.[135]

These agencies touted their ability to distill events into "minute globules of news", 20–30 word summaries which conveyed the essence of new developments.[134] Unlike newspapers, and contrary to the sentiments of some of their reporters, the agencies sought to keep their reports simple and factual.[136] The wire services brought forth the "inverted pyramid" model of news copy, in which key facts appear at the start of the text, and more and more details are included as it goes along.[121] The sparse telegraphic writing style spilled over into newspapers, which often reprinted stories from the wire with little embellishment.[18][137] In a 20 September 1918 Pravda editorial, Lenin instructed the Soviet press to cut back on their political rambling and produce many short anticapitalist news items in "telegraph style".[138]

As in previous eras, the news agencies provided special services to political and business clients, and these services constituted a significant portion of their operations and income. The wire services maintained close relationships with their respective national governments, which provided both press releases and payments.[139] The acceleration and centralization of economic news facilitated regional economic integration and economic globalization. "It was the decrease in information costs and the increasing communication speed that stood at the roots of increased market integration, rather than falling transport costs by itself. In order to send goods to another area, merchants needed to know first whether in fact to send off the goods and to what place. Information costs and speed were essential for these decisions."[140]

Radio and television

[edit]

The British Broadcasting Company began transmitting radio news from London in 1922, dependent entirely, by law, on the British news agencies.[141] BBC radio marketed itself as a news by and for social elites, and hired only broadcasters who spoke with upper-class accents.[142] The BBC gained importance in the May 1926 general strike, during which newspapers were closed and the radio served as the only source of news for an uncertain public. (To the displeasure of many listeners, the BBC took an unambiguously pro-government stance against the strikers).[141][143]

In the US, RCA's Radio Group established its radio network, NBC, in 1926. The Paley family founded CBS soon after. These two networks, which supplied news broadcasts to subsidiaries and affiliates, dominated the airwaves throughout the period of radio's hegemony as a news source.[144] Radio broadcasters in the United States negotiated a similar arrangement with the press in 1933, when they agreed to use only news from the Press–Radio Bureau and eschew advertising; this agreement soon collapsed and radio stations began reporting their own news (with advertising).[145] As in Britain, American news radio avoided "controversial" topics as per norms established by the National Association of Broadcasters.[146] By 1939, 58% of Americans surveyed by Fortune considered radio news more accurate than newspapers, and 70% chose radio as their main news source.[146] Radio expanded rapidly across the continent, from 30 stations in 1920 to a thousand in the 1930s. This operation was financed mostly with advertising and public relations money.[147]

The Soviet Union began a major international broadcasting operation in 1929, with stations in German, English and French. The Nazi Party made use of the radio in its rise to power in Germany, with much of its propaganda focused on attacking the Soviet Bolsheviks. The British and Italian foreign radio services competed for influence in North Africa. All four of these broadcast services grew increasingly vitriolic as the European nations prepared for war.[148]

The war provided an opportunity to expand radio and take advantage of its new potential. The BBC reported on Allied invasion of Normandy on 8:00 a.m. of the morning it took place, and including a clip from German radio coverage of the same event. Listeners followed along with developments throughout the day.[149] The U.S. set up its Office of War Information which by 1942 sent programming across South America, the Middle East, and East Asia.[150] Radio Luxembourg, a centrally located high-power station on the continent, was seized by Germany, and then by the United States—which created fake news programs appearing as though they were created by Germany.[151] Targeting American troops in the Pacific, the Japanese government broadcast the "Zero Hour" program, which included news from the U.S. to make the soldiers homesick.[152] But by the end of the war, Britain had the largest radio network in the world, broadcasting internationally in 43 different languages.[153] Its scope would eventually be surpassed (by 1955) by the worldwide Voice of America programs, produced by the United States Information Agency.[154]

In Britain and the United States, television news watching rose dramatically in the 1950s and by the 1960s supplanted radio as the public's primary source of news.[155] In the U.S., television was run by the same networks which owned radio: CBS, NBC, and an NBC spin-off called ABC.[156] Edward R. Murrow, who first entered the public ear as a war reporter in London, made the big leap to television to become an iconic newsman on CBS (and later the director of the United States Information Agency).[157]

Ted Turner's creation of the Cable News Network (CNN) in 1980 inaugurated a new era of 24-hour satellite news broadcasting. In 1991, the BBC introduced a competitor, BBC World Service Television. Rupert Murdoch's Australian News Corporation entered the picture with Fox News Channel in the US, Sky News in Britain, and STAR TV in Asia.[158] Combining this new apparatus with the use of embedded reporters, the United States waged the 1991–1992 Gulf War with the assistance of nonstop media coverage.[159] CNN's specialty is the crisis, to which the network is prepared to shift its total attention if so chosen.[160] CNN news was transmitted via Intelsat communications satellites.[161] CNN, said an executive, would bring a "town crier to the global village".[162]

In 1996, the Qatar-owned broadcaster Al Jazeera emerged as a powerful alternative to the Western media, capitalizing in part on anger in the Arab & Muslim world regarding biased coverage of the Gulf War. Al Jazeera hired many news workers conveniently laid off by BBC Arabic Television, which closed in April 1996. It used Arabsat to broadcast.[158]

Internet

[edit]

The early internet, known as ARPANET, was controlled by the U.S. Department of Defense and used mostly by academics. It became available to a wider public with the release of the Netscape browser in 1994.[163] At first, news websites were mostly archives of print publications.[164] An early online newspaper was the Electronic Telegraph, published by The Daily Telegraph.[165][166] A 1994 earthquake in California was one of the first big stories to be reported online in real time.[167] The new availability of web browsing made news sites accessible to more people.[167] On the day of the Oklahoma City bombing in April 1995, people flocked to newsgroups and chatrooms to discuss the situation and share information. The Oklahoma City Daily posted news to its site within hours. Two of the only news sites capable of hosting images, the San Jose Mercury News and Time magazine, posted photographs of the scene.[167]

Quantitatively, the internet has massively expanded the sheer volume of news items available to one person. The speed of news flow to individuals has also reached a new plateau.[168] This insurmountable flow of news can daunt people and cause information overload. Zbigniew Brzezinski called this period the "technetronic era", in which "global reality increasingly absorbs the individual, involves him, and even occasionally overwhelms him."[169]

In cases of government crackdowns or revolutions, the Internet has often become a major communication channel for news propagation; while shutting down a newspaper, radio or television station is (relatively) simple, mobile devices such as smartphones and netbooks are much harder to detect and confiscate. The propagation of internet-capable mobile devices has also given rise to the citizen journalist, who provide an additional perspective on unfolding events.

News media today

[edit]

News can travel through different communication media.[17] In modern times, printed news had to be phoned into a newsroom or brought there by a reporter, where it was typed and either transmitted over wire services or edited and manually set in type along with other news stories for a specific edition. Today, the term "breaking news" has become trite as commercial broadcasting United States cable news services that are available 24 hours a day use live communications satellite technology to bring current events into consumers' homes as the event occurs. Events that used to take hours or days to become common knowledge in towns or in nations are fed instantaneously to consumers via radio, television, mobile phone, and the internet.

Speed of news transmission varies wildly on the basis of where and how one lives.[170]

Newspaper

[edit]
A newspaper is one of the most common ways to receive the latest news.

Most large cities in the United States historically had morning and afternoon newspapers. With the addition of new communications media, afternoon newspapers have shut down and morning newspapers have lost circulation. Weekly newspapers have somewhat increased.[171] In more and more cities, newspapers have established local market monopolies—i.e., a single newspaper is the only one in town. This process has accelerated since the 1980s, commensurate with a general trend of consolidation in media ownership.[172] In China, too, newspapers have gained exclusive status, city-by-city, and pooled into large associations such as Chengdu Business News. These associations function like news agencies, challenging the hegemony of Xinhua as a news provider.[135]

The world's top three most circulated newspapers all publish from Japan.

About one-third of newspaper revenue comes from sales; the majority comes from advertising.[173] Newspapers have struggled to maintain revenue given declining circulation and the free flow of information over the internet; some have implemented paywalls for their websites.[165]

In the U.S., many newspapers have shifted their operations online, publishing around the clock rather than daily in order to keep pace with the internet society. Prognosticators have suggested that print newspapers will vanish from the U.S. in 5–20 years.[165] Many newspapers have started to track social media engagement for trending news stories to cover.

Television

[edit]

Internationally distributed news channels include BBC News, CNN, Fox News, MSNBC, CBC News Network, and Sky News. Televisions are densely concentrated in the United States (98% of households), and the average American watches 4 hours of television programming each day. In other parts of the world, such as Kenya—especially rural areas without much electricity—televisions are rare.[170]

The largest supplier of international video news is Reuters TV, with 409 subscribers in 83 countries, 38 bureaus, and a reported audience of 1.5 billion people each day. The other major video news service is Associated Press Television News. These two major agencies have agreements to exchange video news with ABC, NBC, CBS, CNN, and Eurovision—itself a sizeable video news exchange.[174] CNN International is a notable broadcaster in times of crisis.[160]

Internet

[edit]

Online journalism is news that is reported on the internet. News can be delivered more quickly through this method of news as well as accessed more easily. The internet era has transformed the understanding of news. Because the internet allows communication which is not only instantaneous, but also bi- or multi-directional, it has blurred the boundaries of who is a legitimate news producer. A common type of internet journalism is called blogging, which is a service of persistently written articles uploaded and written by one or more individuals. Millions of people in countries such as the United States and South Korea have taken up blogging. Many blogs have rather small audiences; some blogs are read by millions each month.[175] Social media sites, especially Twitter and Facebook, have become an important source of breaking news information and for disseminating links to news websites. Twitter declared in 2012: "It's like being delivered a newspaper whose headlines you'll always find interesting—you can discover news as it's happening, learn more about topics that are important to you, and get the inside scoop in real time."[176] Cell phone cameras have normalized citizen photojournalism.[177]

Michael Schudson, professor at the Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism, has said that "[e]verything we thought we once knew about journalism needs to be rethought in the Digital Age."[178] Today the work of journalism can be done from anywhere and done well. It requires no more than a reporter and a laptop. In that way, journalistic authority seems to have become more individual- and less institution-based. But does the individual reporter always have to be an actual journalist? Or can journalistic work be done from anywhere and by anyone? These are questions that refer to the core of journalistic practice and the definition of "news" itself. As Schudson has given emphasis to, the answer is not easily found; "the ground journalists walk upon is shaking, and the experience for both those who work in the field and those on the outside studying it is dizzying".[178]

Schudson has identified the following six specific areas where the ecology of news in his opinion has changed:

  • The line between the reader and writer has blurred.
  • The distinction among tweet, blog post, Facebook, newspaper story, magazine article, and book has blurred.
  • The line between professionals and amateurs has blurred, and a variety of "pro-am" relationships has emerged.
  • The boundaries delineating for-profit, public, and non-profit media have blurred, and the cooperation across these models of financing has developed.
  • Within commercial news organizations, the line between the news room and the business office has blurred.
  • The line between old media and new media has blurred, practically beyond recognition.[179]

These alterations inevitably have fundamental ramifications for the contemporary ecology of news. "The boundaries of journalism, which just a few years ago seemed relatively clear, and permanent, have become less distinct, and this blurring, while potentially the foundation of progress even as it is the source of risk, has given rise to a new set of journalistic principles and practices",[180] Schudson puts it. It is indeed complex, but it seems to be the future.

Online news has also changed the geographic reach of individual news stories, diffusing readership from city-by-city markets to a potentially global audience.[165]

The growth of social media networks have also created new opportunities for automated and efficient news gathering for journalists and newsrooms. Many newsrooms (broadcasters, newspapers, magazines, radio and TV) have started to perform news gathering on social media platforms. Social media is creating changes in the consumer behaviour and news consumption. According to a study by Pew Research, a large portion of Americans read news on digital and on mobile devices.

Because internet does not have the "column inches" limitation of print media, online news stories can, but don't always, come bundled with supplementary material. The medium of the World Wide Web also enables hyperlinking, which allows readers to navigate to other pages related to the one they're reading.[165]

Despite these changes, some studies have concluded that internet news coverage remains fairly homogenous and dominated by news agencies.[181][182] And journalists working with online media do not identify significantly different criteria for newsworthiness than print journalists.[23]

News agencies

[edit]
Reuters office in Bonn, Germany, 1988

News agencies are services which compile news and disseminate it in bulk. Because they disseminate information to a wide variety of clients, who repackage the material as news for public consumption, news agencies tend to use less controversial language in their reports. Despite their importance, news agencies are not well known by the general public. They keep low profiles and their reporters usually do not get bylines.[18][183]

The oldest news agency still operating is the Agence France-Presse (AFP).[184] It was founded in 1835 by a Parisian translator and advertising agent, Charles-Louis Havas as Agence Havas. By the end of the twentieth century, Reuters far outpaced the other news agencies in profits, and became one of the largest companies in Europe.[185] In 2011, Thomson Reuters employed more than 55,000 people in 100 countries, and posted an annual revenue of $12.9 billion.[18]

United Press International gained prominence as a world news agency in the middle of the twentieth century, but shrank in the 1980s and was sold off at low prices. It is owned by the Unification Church company News World Communications.

News agencies, especially Reuters and the newly important Bloomberg News, convey both news stories for mass audiences and financial information of interest to businesses and investors.[186][187] Bloomberg LP, a private company founded by Michael Bloomberg in 1981, made rapid advances with computerized stock market reporting updated in real time. Its news service continued to exploit this electronic advantage by combining computer-generated analytics with text reporting. Bloomberg linked with Agence France Presse in the 1990s.[187]

Following the marketization of the Chinese economy and the media boom of the 1990s, Xinhua has adopted some commercial practices including subscription fees, but it remains government-subsidized. It provides newswire, news photos, economic information, and audio and video news. Xinhua has a growing number of subscribers, totaling 16,969 in 2002, including 93% of Chinese newspapers.[135] It operates 123 foreign bureaus and produces 300 news stories each day.[188]

Other agencies with considerable reach include Deutsche Presse-Agentur (Germany), Kyodo News (Japan), the Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Associata (Italy), the Middle East News Agency (Egypt), Tanjug (Serbia), EFE (Spain), and Anadolu Agency (Turkey).[189]

On the internet, news aggregators play a role similar to that of the news agency—and, because of the sources they select, tend to transmit news stories which originate from the main agencies. Of articles displayed by Yahoo! News in the U.S., 91.7% come from news agencies: 39.4% from AP, 30.9% AFP, and 21.3% Reuters. In India, 60.1% of Yahoo! News stories come from Reuters. Google News relies somewhat less on news agencies, and has shown high volatility, in the sense of focusing heavily on the most recent handful of salient world events.[181] In 2010, Google News redesigned its front page with automatic geotargeting, which generated a selection of local news items for every viewer.[190]

Global news system

[edit]

In the 20th century, global news coverage was dominated by a combination of the "Big Four" news agencies—Reuters, Associated Press, Agence France Press, and United Press International—representing the Western bloc, and the Communist agencies: TASS from the Soviet Union, and Xinhua from China.[191] Studies of major world events, and analyses of all international news coverage in various newspapers, consistently found that a large majority of news items originated from the four biggest wire services.[181]

Television news agencies include Associated Press Television News, which bought and incorporated World Television News; and Reuters Television.[174][192] Bloomberg News created in the 1990s, expanded rapidly to become a player in the realm of international news.[186] The Associated Press also maintains a radio network with thousands of subscribers worldwide; it is the sole provider of international news to many small stations.[174]

By some accounts, dating back to the 1940s, the increasing interconnectedness of the news system has accelerated the pace of human history itself.[193]

New World Information and Communication Order

[edit]

The global news system is dominated by agencies from Europe and the United States, and reflects their interests and priorities in its coverage.[194] Euro-American control of the global news system has led to criticism; that events around the world are constantly compared to events like the Holocaust and World War II, which are considered foundational in the West.[195] Since the 1960s, a significant amount of news reporting from the Third World has been characterized by some form "development journalism", a paradigm which focuses on long-term development projects, social change, and nation-building.[196] When in 1987 the U.S. media reported on a riot in the Dominican Republic—the first major news item regarding that country in years—the resulting decline in tourism lasted for years and had a noticeable effect on the economy.[197] The English language predominates in global news exchanges.[198] Critics have accused the global news system of perpetuating cultural imperialism.[162][199][200] Critics further charge that the Western media conglomerates maintain a bias towards the status quo economic order, especially a pro-corporate bias.[199]

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has promoted a New World Information and Communication Order, which envisions an international news exchange system involving national news agencies in every country. UNESCO encouraged the new states formed from colonial territories in the 1960s to establish news agencies, to generate domestic news stories, exchange news items with international partners, and disseminate both types of news internally.[201] Along these lines, the 1980 MacBride report, "Many Voices, One World", called for an interdependent global news system with more participation from different governments. To this end, also, UNESCO formed the Non-Aligned News Agencies Pool.[202]

The Inter Press Service, founded in 1964, has served as an intermediary for Third World press agencies.[203] Inter Press Service's editorial policy favors coverage of events, institutions, and issues which relate to inequality, economic development, economic integration, natural resources, population, health, education, and sustainable development.[204] It gives less coverage than other agencies to crime, disasters, and violence. Geographically, 70% of its news reporting concerns Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean.[205] IPS has the most subscribers in Latin America and southern Africa.[204] IPS receives grants from organizations such as the United Nations Development Program and other United Nations agencies and private foundations to report news on chosen topics, including the environment, sustainable development, and women's issues.[206]

Beginning in the 1960s, the United States Agency for International Development, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and UNESCO developed the use of satellite television for international broadcasting. In India, 1975–1976, these agencies implemented an experimental satellite television system, called the Satellite Instructional Television Experiment, with assistance from the Indian Space Research Organisation, and All India Radio.[207]

Further transformation in global news flow

[edit]

By the 1980s, much of the Third World had succumbed to a debt crisis resulting from unpayable large loans accumulated since the 1960s. At this point, the World Bank took an active role in the governance of many countries, and its authority extended to communications policy. The policy of developing Third World media gave way to a global regime of free trade institutions like the World Trade Organization, which also protected the free flow of information across borders.[208] The World Bank also promoted privatization of national telecommunications, which afforded large multinational corporations the opportunity to purchase networks and expand operations in the Third World.[209][210]

In countries with less telecommunications infrastructure, people, especially youth, tend today to get their news predominantly from mobile phones and, less so, from the internet. Older folks listen more to the radio. The government of China is a major investor in Third World telecommunications, especially in Africa.[211] Some issues relating to global information flow were revisited in light of the internet at the 2003/2005 World Summit on the Information Society, a conference which emphasized the role of civil society and the private sector in information society governance.[212]

News values

[edit]

News values are the professional norms of journalism. Commonly, news content should contain all the "Five Ws" (who, what, when, where, why, and also how) of an event. Newspapers normally place hard news stories on the first pages, so the most important information is at the beginning, enabling busy readers to read as little or as much as they desire. Local stations and networks with a set format must take news stories and break them down into the most important aspects due to time constraints.

Journalists are often expected to aim for objectivity; reporters claim to try to cover all sides of an issue without bias, as compared to commentators or analysts, who provide opinion or personal points of view. The resulting articles lay out facts in a sterile, noncommittal manner, standing back to "let the reader decide" the truth of the matter.[213] Several governments impose certain constraints against bias. In the United Kingdom, the government agency of Ofcom (Office of Communications) enforces a legal requirement of "impartiality" on news broadcasters.[214] Some governments, such as Russia, operate state-run news organizations.[215]

Although newswriters have always laid claim to truth and objectivity, the modern values of professional journalism were established beginning in the late 1800s and especially after World War I, when groups like the American Society of Newspaper Editors codified rules for unbiased news reporting. These norms held the most sway in American and British journalism, and were scorned by some other countries.[216][217] These ideas have become part of the practice of journalism across the world.[218] Soviet commentators said stories in the Western press were trivial distractions from reality, and emphasized a socialist realism model focusing on developments in everyday life.[219]

Even in those situations where objectivity is expected, it is difficult to achieve, and individual journalists may fall foul of their own personal bias, or succumb to commercial or political pressure. Similarly, the objectivity of news organizations owned by conglomerated corporations fairly may be questioned, in light of the natural incentive for such groups to report news in a manner intended to advance the conglomerate's financial interests. Individuals and organizations who are the subject of news reports may use news management techniques to try to make a favourable impression.[220] Because each individual has a particular point of view, it is recognized that there can be no absolute objectivity in news reporting.[221] Journalists can collectively shift their opinion over what is a controversy up for debate and what is an established fact, as evidenced by homogenization during the 2000s of news coverage of climate change.[222]

Some commentators on news values have argued that journalists' training in news values itself represents a systemic bias of the news. The norm of objectivity leads journalists to gravitate towards certain types of acts and exclude others. A journalist can be sure of objectivity in reporting that an official or public figure has made a certain statement. This is one reason why so much news reporting is devoted to official statements.[223] This lemma dates back to the early history of public news reporting, as exemplified by an English printer who on 12 March 1624 published news from Brussels in the form of letters, with the prefacing comment: "Now because you shall not say, that either out of my owne conceit I misliked a phrase, or presumptuously tooke upon me to reforme any thing amisse, I will truly set you downe their owne words."[224]

Feminist critiques argue that discourse defined as objective by news organizations reflects a male-centered perspective.[225] In their selection of sources, journalists rely heavily on men as sources of authoritative- and objective-seeming statements.[226] News reporting has also tended to discuss women differently, usually in terms of appearance and relationship to men.[227]

The critique of traditional norms of objectivity comes from within news organizations as well. Said Peter Horrocks, head of television news at BBC: "The days of middle-of-the-road, balancing Left and Right, impartiality are dead. […] we need to consider adopting what I like to think of as a much wider 'radical impartiality'—the need to hear the widest range of views—all sides of the story."[214]

Social organization of news production

[edit]

News organizations

[edit]

Viewed from a sociological perspective, news for mass consumption is produced in hierarchical organizations. Reporters, working near the bottom of the structure, are given significant autonomy in researching and preparing reports, subject to assignments and occasional intervention from higher decision-makers.[228] Owners at the top of the news hierarchy influence the content of news indirectly but substantially. The professional norms of journalism discourage overt censorship; however, news organizations have covert but firm norms about how to cover certain topics. These policies are conveyed to journalists through socialization on the job; without any written policy, they simply learn how things are done.[229][230] Journalists comply with these rules for various reasons, including job security.[231] Journalists are also systematically influenced by their education, including journalism school.[232]

News production is routinized in several ways. News stories use familiar formats and subgenres which vary by topic. "Rituals of objectivity", such as pairing a quotation from one group with a quotation from a competing group, dictate the construction of most news narratives. Many news items revolve around periodic press conferences or other scheduled events. Further routine is established by assigning each journalist to a beat: a domain of human affairs, usually involving government or commerce, in which certain types of events routinely occur.[233]

A common scholarly frame for understanding news production is to examine the role of information gatekeepers: to ask why and how certain narratives make their way from news producers to news consumers.[234] Obvious gatekeepers include journalists, news agency staff, and wire editors of newspapers.[235] Ideology, personal preferences, source of news, and length of a story are among the many considerations which influence gatekeepers.[236] Although social media have changed the structure of news dissemination, gatekeeper effects may continue due to the role of a few central nodes in the social network.[237]

New factors have emerged in internet-era newsrooms. One issue is "click-thinking", the editorial selection of news stories—and of journalists—who can generate the most website hits and thus advertising revenue. Unlike a newspaper, a news website has detailed data collection about which stories are popular and who is reading them.[183][238] The drive for speedy online postings, some journalists have acknowledged, has altered norms of fact-checking so that verification takes place after publication.[183][239]

Journalists' sometimes unattributed echoing of other news sources can also increase the homogeneity of news feeds.[240] The digital age can accelerate the problem of circular reporting: propagation of the same error through increasingly reliable sources. In 2009, a number of journalists were embarrassed after all reproducing a fictional quotation, originating from Wikipedia.[240][241]

News organizations have historically been male-dominated, though women have acted as journalists since at least the 1880s. The number of female journalists has increased over time, but organizational hierarchies remain controlled mostly by men.[242] Studies of British news organizations estimate that more than 80% of decision-makers are men.[243] Similar studies have found 'old boys' networks' in control of news organizations in the United States and the Netherlands.[244] Further, newsrooms tend to divide journalists by gender, assigning men to "hard" topics like military, crime, and economics, and women to "soft", "humanised" topics.[245]

Relationship with institutions

[edit]

For various reasons, news media usually have a close relationship with the state, and often church as well, even when they cast themselves in critical roles.[48][49][246] This relationship seems to emerge because the press can develop symbiotic relationships with other powerful social institutions.[246] In the United States, the Associated Press wire service developed a "bilateral monopoly" with the Western Union telegraph company.[119][247]

The news agencies which rose to power in the mid-1800s all had support from their respective governments, and in turn served their political interests to some degree.[139] News for consumption has operated under statist assumptions, even when it takes a stance adversarial to some aspect of a government.[248] In practice, a large proportion of routine news production involves interactions between reporters and government officials.[249] Relatedly, journalists tend to adopt a hierarchical view of society, according to which a few people at the top of organizational pyramids are best situated to comment on the reality which serves as the basis of news.[250] Broadly speaking, therefore, news tends to normalize and reflect the interests of the power structure dominant in its social context.[251]

Today, international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) rival and may surpass governments in their influence on the content of news.[252]

State control

[edit]

Governments use international news transmissions to promote the national interest and conduct political warfare, alternatively known as public diplomacy and, in the modern era, international broadcasting. International radio broadcasting came into wide-ranging use by world powers seeking cultural integration of their empires.[253] The British government used BBC radio as a diplomatic tool, setting up Arabic, Spanish and Portuguese services in 1937.[254] American propaganda broadcasters include Voice of America and Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, set up during the Cold War and still operating today.[255] The United States remains the world's top broadcaster, although by some accounts it was surpassed for a time c. 1980 by the Soviet Union. Other major international broadcasters include the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Germany, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, North Korea, India, Cuba, and Australia.[256] Around the world (and especially, formerly, in the Soviet bloc), international news sources such as the BBC World Service are often welcomed as alternatives to domestic state-run media.[257][258]

Governments have also funneled programming through private news organizations, as when the British government arranged to insert news into the Reuters feed during and after World War Two.[259] Past revelations have suggested that the U.S. military and intelligence agencies create news stories which they disseminate secretly into the foreign and domestic media. Investigation into the Central Intelligence Agency pursued in the 1970s found that it owned hundreds of news organizations (wire services, newspapers, magazines) outright.[260][261] Soviet news warfare also involved the creation of front groups, like the International Organization of Journalists. The Russian KGB heavily pursued a strategy of disinformation, planting false stories which made their way to news outlets worldwide.[262]

Broadcasts into Iraq before the Second Gulf War mimicked the style of local programming.[263] The US also launched Middle East Broadcasting Networks, featuring the satellite TV station Alhurra and radio station Radio Sawa to beam 24-hour programming to Iraq and environs.[264]

Today, Al Jazeera, a TV and internet news network owned by the government of Qatar, has become one of the foremost news sources in the world, appreciated by millions as an alternative to the Western media.[265] State-owned China Central Television operates 18 channels and reaches more than a billion viewers worldwide.[266] Iran's Press TV and Russia's Russia Today, branded as RT, also have multiplatform presences and large audiences.

Public relations

[edit]

If important things of life to-day consist of trans-atlantic radiophone talks arranged by commercial telephone companies; if they consist of inventions that will be commercially advantageous to the men who market them; if they consist of Henry Fords with epoch-making cars—then all this is news.

Edward Bernays, Propaganda (1928), pp. 152–153.

As distinct from advertising, which deals with marketing distinct from news, public relations involves the techniques of influencing news in order to give a certain impression to the public. A standard public relations tactic, the "third-party technique", is the creation of seemingly independent organizations, which can deliver objective-sounding statements to news organizations without revealing their corporate connections.[267] Public relations agencies can create complete content packages, such as Video News Releases, which are rebroadcast as news without commentary or detail about their origin.[268] Video news releases seem like normal news programming, but use subtle product placement and other techniques to influence viewers.[269]

Public relations releases offer valuable newsworthy information to increasingly overworked journalists on deadline.[240] (This pre-organized news content has been called an information subsidy.)[270] The journalist relies on appearances of autonomy and even opposition to established interests—but the public relations agent seek to conceal their client's influence on the news,. Thus, public relations works its magic in secret.[252][271]

Public relations can dovetail with state objectives, as in the case of the 1990 news story about Iraqi soldiers taking "babies out of incubators" in Kuwaiti hospitals.[272] During the Nigerian Civil War, both the federal government and the secessionist Republic of Biafra hired public relations firms, which competed to influence public opinion in the West, and between them established some of the key narratives employed in news reports about the war.[273]

Overall, the position of the public relations industry has grown stronger, while the position of news producers has grown weaker. Public relations agents mediate the production of news about all sectors of society.[271]

News consumption

[edit]

Over the centuries, commentators on newspapers and society have repeatedly observed widespread human interest in news.[4][274] Elite members of a society's political and economic institutions might rely on news as one limited source of information, for the masses, news represents a relatively exclusive window onto the operations by which a society is managed.[275]

Regular people in societies with news media often spend a lot of time reading or watching news reports.[276] Newspapers became significant aspects of national and literary culture—as exemplified by James Joyce's Ulysses, which derives from the newspapers of 16 June (and thereabouts), 1904, and represents the newspaper office itself as a vital part of life in Dublin.[277]

A 1945 study by sociologist Bernard Berelson found that during the 1945 New York newspaper strike, New Yorkers exhibited a virtual addiction to news, describing themselves as "lost", "nervous", "isolated", and "suffering" due to the withdrawal.[278] Television news has become still further embedded in everyday life, with specific programming anticipated at different times of day.[279] Children tend to find the news boring, too serious, or emotionally disturbing. They come to perceive news as characteristic of adulthood, and begin watching television news in their teenage years because of the adult status it confers.[280]

People exhibit various forms of skepticism towards the news. Studies of tabloid readers found that many of them gain pleasure from seeing through the obviously fake or poorly constructed stories—and get their "real news" from television.[281]

Social and cultural cohesion

[edit]

An important feature distinguishing news from private information transfers is the impression that when one reads (or hears, or watches) it, one joins a larger public.[282] In this regard news serves to unify its receivers under the banner of a culture, or a society, as well as into the sub-demographics of a society targeted by their favorite kind of news.[283] News thus plays a role in nation-building, the construction of a national identity.[284]

Images connected with news can also become iconic and gain a fixed role in the culture. Examples such as Alfred Eisenstaedt's photograph V-J Day in Times Square, Nick Ut's photograph of Phan Thi Kim Phuc and other children running from a napalm blast in Vietnam; Kevin Carter's photograph of a starving child being stalked by a vulture;[195] etc.

With the new interconnectedness of global media, the experience of receiving news along with a world audience reinforces the social cohesion effect on a larger scale.[285] As a corollary, global media culture may erode the uniqueness and cohesion of national cultures.[199]

Public sphere

[edit]

This collective form experience can be understood to constitute a political realm or public sphere.[282][286] In this view, the news media constitute a fourth estate which serves to check and balance the operations of government.[279]

This idea, at least as a goal to be sought, has re-emerged in the era of global communications.[287] Today, unprecedented opportunities exist for public analysis and discussion of world events.[288] According to one interpretation of the CNN effect, instantaneous global news coverage can rally public opinion as never before to motivate political action.[289] In 1989, local and global communications media-enabled instant exposure to and discussion of the Chinese government's actions in Tiananmen Square. The news about Tiananmen Square travelled over a fax machine, telephone, newspaper, radio, and television, and continued to travel even after the government imposed new restrictions on local telecommunications.[290]

News events

[edit]

As the technological means for disseminating news grew more powerful, news became an experience which millions of people could undergo simultaneously. Outstanding news experiences can exert a profound influence on millions of people. Through its power to effect a shared experience, news events can mold the collective memory of a society.[291][292]

One type of news event, the media event, is a scripted pageant organized for a mass live broadcast. Media events include athletic contests such as the Super Bowl and the Olympics, cultural events like awards ceremonies and celebrity funerals, and also political events such as coronations, debates between electoral candidates, and diplomatic ceremonies.[293] These events typically unfold according to a common format which simplifies the transmission of news items about them.[294] Usually, they have the effect of increasing the perceived unity of all parties involved, which include the broadcasters and audience.[295] Today, international events such as a national declaration of independence can be scripted in advance with the major news agencies, with staff specially deployed to key locations worldwide in advance of the life news broadcast. Public relations companies can participate in these events as well.[296]

The perception that an ongoing crisis is taking place further increases the significance of live news. People rely on the news and constantly seek more of it, to learn new information and to seek reassurance amidst feelings of fear and uncertainty.[297] Crises can also increase the effect of the news on social cohesion, and lead the population of a country to "rally" behind its current leadership.[298] The rise of a global news system goes hand in hand with the advent of terrorism and other sensational acts, which have power in proportion to the audience they capture. In 1979, the capture of American hostages in Iran dominated months of news coverage in the western media, gained the status of a "crisis", and influenced a presidential election.[299]

South Africans overwhelmingly describe the end of Apartheid as a source of the country's most important news.[300] In the United States, news events such as the assassinations of the 1960s (of John F. Kennedy, Martin Luther King, Jr., and Robert F. Kennedy), the 1969 Moon landing, the 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger explosion, the 1997 death of Princess Diana, the intervention of the Supreme Court in the 2000 presidential election and the 2001 September 11 attacks.[301] In Jordan, people cited numerous memorable news events involving death and war, including the death of King Hussein, Princess Diana, and Yitzhak Rabin. Positive news stories found memorable by Jordanians featured political events affecting their lives and families—such as the Israeli withdrawal from South Lebanon, and the Israel–Jordan peace treaty.[302]

News coverage can also shape collective memory in retrospect. A study of Israeli news coverage leading up to the media event of the nation's 60th birthday found that news coverage of events like the Holocaust, World War Two, and subsequent Israeli wars increased the perceived importance of these events in the minds of citizens.[303]

News making

[edit]

News making is the act of making the news or doing something that is considered to be newsworthy. When discussing the act of news making, scholars refer to specific models. Five of these models are the Professional Model, Mirror Model, Organizational Model, Political Model, and Civic Journalism Model.[304]

The Professional Model is when skilled peoples put certain events together for a specific audience. The reaction of the audience is influential because it can determine the impact that the particular article or newspaper has on the readers.[305] The Mirror Model states that news should reflect reality. This model aims to focus on particular events and provide accuracy in reporting. The Organizational Model is also known as the Bargaining Model.[304] It focuses on influencing various news organizations by applying pressures to governmental processes. The Political Model outlines that news represents the ideological biases of the people as well as the various pressures of the political environment. This model mainly influences journalists and attempts to promote public opinion.[305] The Civic Journalism Model is when the press discovers the concerns of the people and uses that to write stories. This allows the audience to play an active role in society.

Models of news making help define what the news is and how it influences readers. But it does not necessarily account for the content of print news and online media. Stories are selected if they have a strong impact, incorporate violence and scandal, are familiar and local, and if they are timely.

News Stories with a strong impact can be easily understood by a reader. Violence and scandal create an entertaining and attention-grabbing story.[304] Familiarity makes a story more relatable because the reader knows who is being talked about. Proximity can influence a reader more. A story that is timely will receive more coverage because it is a current event. The process of selecting stories coupled with the models of news making are how the media is effective and impactful in society.

Psychological effects

[edit]

Exposure to constant news coverage of war can lead to stress and anxiety.[306] Television coverage of the destruction of the World Trade Center in 2001, which repeated the same footage over and over, led to symptoms of psychological trauma experienced across the United States.[307] Studies have indicated that children have been traumatized by exposure to television of other frightening events, including the Challenger disaster.[308] Journalists themselves also experience trauma and guilt.[309]

Research also suggest that constant representations of violence in the news lead people to overestimate the frequency of its occurrence in the real world, thus increasing their level of fear in everyday situations.[310]

Influence

[edit]

The content and style of news delivery certainly have effects on the general public, with the magnitude and precise nature of these effects being tough to determine experimentally.[311] In Western societies, television viewing has been so ubiquitous that its total effect on psychology and culture leave few alternatives for comparison.[312]

News is the leading source of knowledge about global affairs for people around the world.[313] According to agenda-setting theory, the general public will identify as its priorities those issues which are highlighted on the news.[314] The agenda-setting model has been well-supported by research, which indicate that the public's self-reported concerns respond to changes in news coverage rather than changes in the underlying issue itself.[315] The less an issue obviously affects people's lives, the bigger an influence media agenda-setting can have on their opinion of it.[316] The agenda-setting power becomes even stronger in practice because of the correspondence in news topics promulgated by different media channels.[317]

Influence of sponsorship

[edit]

It has been acknowledged that sponsorship has historically influenced various news stories.[318][319][320] This history gained widespread attention following the release of the 2013 film Anchorman 2.[318][319][320] One example in recent time is the fact that Facebook has invested heavily in news sources and purchasing time on local news media outlets.[321][322] TechCrunch journalist Josh Continue even stated in February 2018 that the company "stole the news business" and used sponsorship to make many news publishers its "ghostwriters."[321] In January 2019, founder Mark Zuckerberg announced that he will spend $300 million in local news buys over a three-year period.[322][323]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "News", Oxford English Dictionary, accessed online, 5 March 2015. "Etymology: Spec. use of plural of new n., after Middle French nouvelles (see novel n.), or classical Latin nova new things, in post-classical Latin also news (from late 13th cent. in British sources), use as noun of neuter plural of novus new (compare classical Latin rēs nova (feminine singular) a new development, a fresh turn of events). Compare later novel n."
  2. ^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 7 July 2012.
  3. ^ "Mrs. John Cosgrave Is Dead Founded Finch Junior College: Was Institution's President Nearly 50 Years; Coined 'Current Events' Phrase". New York Herald Tribune. 1 November 1949.
  4. ^ a b Stephens, History of News (1988), p. 13.
  5. ^ a b Smith,The Newspaper: An International History (1979), p. 7. "In the information which [the newspaper] chose to supply, and in the many sources of information which it took over and reorganized, it contained a bias towards recency or newness; to its readers, it offered regularity of publication. It had to be filled with whatever was available, unable to wait until information of greater clarity or certainty or of wider perspective had accumulated."
  6. ^ Salmon, The Newspaper and the Historian (1923), p. 10. Salmon quotes Théophraste Renaudot: "History is the record of things accomplished. A Gazette is the reflection of feelings and rumors of the time which may or may not be true."
  7. ^ a b Pettegree, The Invention of News (2014), p. 3. "Even as news became more plentiful in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the problem of establishing the veracity of news reports remained acute. The news market—and by the sixteenth century it was a real market—was humming with conflicting reports, some incredible, some all too plausible: lives, fortunes, even the fate of kingdoms could depend upon acting on the right information."
  8. ^ a b Park, "News as a Form of Knowledge" (1940), pp. 675–676. "News is not history because, for one thing among others, it deals, on the whole, with isolated events and does not seek to relate them to one another either in the form of causal or in the form of Teleological sequences."
  9. ^ Schudson, "When? Deadlines, Datelines, and History"; in Reading The News (1986), ed. Manoff & Schudson; pp. 81–82.
  10. ^ Shoemaker & Cohen, News Around the World (2006), pp. 13–14.
  11. ^ Park, "News as a Form of Knowledge" (1940), p. 678.
  12. ^ Stephens, History of News (1988), p. 56. "It is axiomatic in journalism that the fastest medium with the largest potential audience will disseminate the bulk of a community's breaking news. Today that race is being won by television and radio. Consequently, daily newspapers are beginning to underplay breaking news about yesterday's events (already old news to much of their audience) in favor of more analytical perspectives on those events. In other words, dailies are now moving in the direction toward which weeklies retreated when dailies were introduced."
  13. ^ Heyd, Reading newspapers (2012), pp. 35, 82. "... newspapers were defining what news was, categorizing and expanding their domain on the fly. Indeed, Somerville argues that 'news' is not an objective 'historical' concept but one that is defined by the news industry as it creates a commodity sold by publishers to the public."
  14. ^ Stephens, History of News (1988), p. 3. "The term journalism is used broadly here and elsewhere in the book to refer to more than just the production of printed 'journals'; it is the most succinct term we have for the activity of gathering and disseminating news."
  15. ^ Shoemaker & Cohen, News Around the World (2006), p. 7. "[...] for the journalist the assessment of newsworthiness is an operationalization based on the aforementioned conditions. In other words, the practitioner typically constructs a method for fulfilling the daily job requirements. He or she rarely has an underlying theoretical understanding of what defining something or someone as newsworthy entails. To be sure, individual journalists may engage in more abstract musings about their work, but the profession as a whole is content to apply these conditions and does not care that the theory behind the application is not widely understood. Hall (1981, 147) calls news a 'slippery' concept, with journalists defining newsworthiness as those things that get into the news media."
  16. ^ Pettegree, The Invention of News (2014), p. 6. "News fitted ideally into the expanding market for cheap print, and it swiftly became an important commodity."
  17. ^ a b Boyd-Barrett & Rantanen, The Globalization of News (1998), p. 6. "News agency news is considered 'wholesale' resource material, something that has to be worked upon, smelted, reconfigured, for conversion into a news report that is suitable for consumption by ordinary readers. It has also suited the news agencies to be thus presented: they have needed to seem credible to extensive networks of 'retail' clients of many different political and cultural shades and hues. They have wanted to avoid controversy, to maintain an image of plain, almost dull, but completely dependable professionalism."
  18. ^ a b c d Phil MacGregor, "International News Agencies: Global eyes that never blink", in Fowler-Watt & Allan (eds.), Journalism (2013).
  19. ^ Heyd, Reading newspapers (2012), pp. 36–37.
  20. ^ Schudson, Discovering the News (1978), p. 6. "Before the 1920s, journalists did not think much about the subjectivity of perception. They had relatively little incentive to doubt the firmness of the reality by which they lived. […] After World War I, however, this changed. Journalists, like others, lost faith in the democratic market society had taken for granted. Their experience of propaganda during the war and public relations thereafter convinced them that the world they reported was one that interested parties had constructed for them to report. In such a world, naïve empiricism could not last."
  21. ^ Allan, News Culture (2004), pp. 46–47.
  22. ^ Stephens, History of News (1988), p. 2. "Sensationalism appears to be a technique or style that is rooted somehow in the nature of the news. News obviously can do much more than merely sensationalize, but most news is, in an important sense, sensational: it is intended, in part, to arouse, to excite, often—whether the subject is a political scandal or a double murder—to shock."
  23. ^ a b Strömbäck, Jesper; Karlsson, Michael; Hopmann, Nicolas (2012). "Determinants of News Content: Comparing journalists' perceptions of the normative and actual impact of different event properties when deciding what's news". Journalism Studies. 13: 5–6. doi:10.1080/1461670X.2012.664321. S2CID 55642544.
  24. ^ Stephens, History of News (1988), pp. 26, 105–106.
  25. ^ Allan, News Culture (2004), p. 202.
  26. ^ "definition of newsworthiness by the Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus, and Encyclopedia". Thefreedictionary.com. Retrieved 9 March 2012.
  27. ^ Stephens, History of News (1988), p. 33.
  28. ^ Stephens, History of News (1988), p. 31.
  29. ^ Stephens, History of News (1988), pp. 14, 305. "The desire to pass on tales of current events could be found even in cultures that did not have writing—let alone printing presses or computers—to whet or satisfy their thirst for news. Observers have often remarked on the fierce concern with the news that they find in preliterate or semiliterate peoples. [...] It is difficult, if not impossible, to find a society that does not exchange news and that does not build into its rituals and customs means for facilitating that exchange."
  30. ^ Stephens, History of News (1988), p 23.
  31. ^ Fang, History of Mass Communication (1997), p. 19.
  32. ^ Stephens, History of News (1988), p. 8. "A particularly lively forum for the exchange of news by word of mouth—the coffeehouse—flourished in England well after the development of the newspaper, and in some countries, the coffeehouse has survived even the introduction of television."
  33. ^ Ayalon, The Press in the Arab Middle East: A History (1995), p. 5.
  34. ^ Lim, "Take Writing" (2006), pp. 1–6.
  35. ^ [1] Archived 19 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  36. ^ Bleumer, Gerrit (2007). Electronic Postage Systems: Technology, Security, Economics. Springer. p. 2. ISBN 9780387446066.
  37. ^ a b Allan, News Culture (2004), p. 9.
  38. ^ Straubhaar and LaRose, Communications Media in the Information Society (1997), p. 390.
  39. ^ Lim, "Take Writing" (2006), p. 5.
  40. ^ Stephens, History of News (1988), p. 27–30.
  41. ^ Milner, "Fanno bandire" (2013), pp. 110–112.
  42. ^ Milner, "Fanno bandire" (2013), p. 120.
  43. ^ Milner, "Fanno bandire" (2013), p. 121.
  44. ^ Milner, "Fanno bandire" (2013), pp. 122–123.
  45. ^ Milner, "Fanno bandire" (2013), p. 124.
  46. ^ Straubhaar and LaRose, Communications Media in the Information Society (1997), p. 366. "Another ancient form of advertising was the town crier, who told the citizenry about the 'good deal' to be found 'just around the corner'. Unlike the signs, which contained only information regarding the merchant, the criers also informed the citizens of the news of the day. Because the crier, or his agent, was compensated for his assistance in getting the advertising message out in the context of the news, there are interesting parallels with the newspaper of today (Applegate, 1993; Roche, 1993; Schramm, 1988)."
  47. ^ Ayalon, The Press in the Arab Middle East: A History (1995), p. 4.
  48. ^ a b Fang, History of Mass Communication (1997), pp. 14–15.
  49. ^ a b Stephens, History of News (1988), p. 27. "Whoever controlled the messengers could select which anecdotes and information would be favored by this treatment. Therefore, whoever controlled the messengers gained not only a conduit to the members of a society—the ability to inform them of new regulations—but gained a measure of power over the selection of news the members of a society received—the power, for example to ensure that they received news of triumphs but not necessarily of debacles. Messengers were controlled, for the most part, by kings, chiefs, headmen. They were rarely channels of dissent."
  50. ^ Kessler, "Royal Roads" (1995), p. 129. "The ability of the Assyrian court to challenge a huge and permanent stream of information seems to have been one of the essential factors for the long maintenance of Assyrian domination, over the vast areas in the Near East."
  51. ^ Pettegree, The Invention of News (2014), pp. 19–20.
  52. ^ Stephens, History of News (1988), pp. 24–25.
  53. ^ a b Bakker, "Trading Facts" (2011), p. 13.
  54. ^ Starr, Creation of the Media (2004), pp. 156–157.
  55. ^ a b c Distelrath, "Development of the Information and Communication Systems in Germany and Japan" (2000), pp. 45–46 .
  56. ^ Zhang, Origins of the Modern Chinese Press (2007), p. 13.
  57. ^ Smith,The Newspaper: An International History (1979), p. 14. "The Chinese civilization was one of the earliest to have found it convenient to set up a systematic news-collection network across a large land mass. During the Han dynasty (206BC–AD219) the imperial court arranged to be supplied with information on the events of the Empire by means of a postal empire similar to the princely message systems of the European Middle Ages, when the postmasters of the Holy Roman Empire were required to write summaries of events taking place within their regions and transmit them along specified routes."
  58. ^ a b Smith,The Newspaper: An International History (1979), p. 14–15.
  59. ^ Zhang, Origins of the Modern Chinese Press (2007), p. 14. "However, it was in the Tang dynasty that a specific bureau—the Bureau of Official Reports (Jin Zhouyuan)—was created to accommodate the local representatives. During this time, there were many rising powerful dukes, princes or governor-generals in charge of the large territories, equal in size to a modern province in China. These dukes or princes would naturally provide for their own news service at the capital Chang'an, which handled all official documents submitted by these representatives and transmitted imperial edicts in return. Recent archaeological research has uncovered such official reports from the Tang dynasty. Two archive documents of that period, originally found in Dunhuang have been regarded by Chinese scholars as the earliest forms of newspaper in the world (Fang 1997 53–8)"
  60. ^ Smith,The Newspaper: An International History (1979), p. 14. "At a later stage of its development, during the Sung period (960–1278), the ti pao was made to circulate among the purely intellectual groups, and during the Ming (1367–1644) was seen by a wider circle of society."
  61. ^ Brook, Timothy. (1998). The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22154-0 p. xxi.
  62. ^ Stephens, History of News (1988), pp. 68–69.
  63. ^ Alice Gordenker, "Postal Symbol"; Japan Times, 21 May 2013.
  64. ^ Distelrath, "Development of the Information and Communication Systems in Germany and Japan" (2000), p. 44.
  65. ^ Lampe & Ploeckl, "Spanning the Globe" (2014), 247.
  66. ^ McCusker & Gravesteijn, Beginnings of Commercial and Financial Journalism (1991), p. 21. "Business thrives on the most recent news. The merchants of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, no less than those of today, required the 'freshest advices' in order to conduct their affairs profitably."
  67. ^ Wan-Press.org Archived 11 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine, A Newspaper Timeline, World Association of Newspapers
  68. ^ Infelise, Mario. "Roman Avvisi: Information and Politics in the Seventeenth Century." in Court and Politics in Papal Rome, 1492–1700(Cambridge University Press, 2002) pp. 212, 214, 216–217
  69. ^ Selfridge-Field, Eleanor. Pallade Veneta: Writings on Music and Society, 1650–1750. Venice: Fondazione Ugo e Olga Levi, 1985. Chs. 1 2, 3.
  70. ^ Selfridge-Field, Eleanor. Song and Season: Science, Culture, and Theatrical Time. (Stanford UP, 2007). Chs. 10, 11.
  71. ^ Pettegree, The Invention of News (2014), p. 5.
  72. ^ a b c Lampe & Ploeckl, "Spanning the Globe" (2014), 248.
  73. ^ Pettegree, The Invention of News (2014), pp. 17–18.
  74. ^ Starr, Creation of the Media (2004), pp. 30–31.
  75. ^ Fang, History of Mass Communication (1997), pp. 29–30.
  76. ^ Smith,The Newspaper: An International History (1979), pp. 18–19. "Since the late Middle Ages a formal network of correspondents and intelligence agents had come into being across the bulk of the European continent, busily sending news of military, diplomatic and ecclesiastical affairs along a series of prescribed routes. The information was handwritten and passed along carefully organized chains, each item being labeled with its place and date of origin."
  77. ^ a b Bakker, "Trading Facts" (2011), pp. 11–12.
  78. ^ Lim, "Take Writing" (2006), pp. 35–45.
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  250. ^ Allan, News Culture (2004), pp. 62–63. "To clarify, H.S. Becker (1967) employs the notion of a 'hierarchy of credibility' to specify how, in a system of ranked groups, participants will take it as given that the members of the highest group are best placed to define 'the way things really are' due to their 'knowledge of truth'. Implicit in this assumption is the view that 'those at the top' will have access to a more complete picture of the bureaucratic organization's workings than members of lower groups whose definition of reality, because of this subordinate status, can only be partial and distorted."
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  266. ^ Geniets, Global News Challenge (2013), p. 66.
  267. ^ Rampton & Stauber, Trust Us, We're Experts (2001), pp. 13–20.
  268. ^ Rampton & Stauber, Trust Us, We're Experts (2001), pp. 22–24.
  269. ^ Straubhaar and LaRose, Communications Media in the Information Society (1997), pp. 395–396.
  270. ^ Curtin, Patricia A. (1999). "Reevaluating Public Relations Information Subsidies: Market-Driven Journalism and Agenda-Building Theory and Practice". Journal of Public Relations Research. 11 (1): 53–90. doi:10.1207/s1532754xjprr1101_03.
  271. ^ a b Kevin Moloney, Daniel Jackson, & David McQueen, "News journalism and public relations: a dangerous relationship", in Fowler-Watt & Allan (eds.), Journalism (2013).
  272. ^ Parenti, Inventing Reality (1993), p. 169.
  273. ^ Karen Rothmyer, "What really happened in Biafra? Why did themes such as mass starvation and genocide alternately surface and fade? A study of media susceptibility to public relations manipulation." Columbia Journalism Review 9.3, Fall 1970.
  274. ^ Salmon, The Newspaper and the Historian (1923), pp. 1–2, 31.
  275. ^ Perse, Media Effects And Society (2001), pp. 93–94. "Because political events and issues in modern societies typically take place in specialized locations, most citizens experience politics vicariously. […] For elites, information from the media becomes just one of many sources of data. Because of their political involvement and interest and their vast base of prior knowledge, elites treat media coverage as foreground, or sources of new and/or specific information. […] Nonelites, on the other hand, are not so interested in politics, and they have relatively little prior knowledge about political issues. For nonelites, media coverage is not only a source of new data, but their only source of information."
  276. ^ Stephens, History of News (1988), p. 5.
  277. ^ R. Brandon Kershner, The Culture of Joyce's Ulysses; Palgrave Macmillan, 2010; see Chapter Five, "Newspapers and Periodicals: Endless Dialogue". Also see: James Broderick, "'Give Us This Day Our Daily Press': Journalism in the Life and Art of James Joyce", Dissertation accepted at City University of New York, 1999.
  278. ^ Bernard Berelson, "What 'missing the newspaper' means", in Communications Research 1948–1949, ed. Lazarsfeld & Stanton; New York: Harper & Brothers, 1949; quoted in Stephens, History of News (1988), p. 17.
  279. ^ a b Allan, News Culture (2004), pp. 47–48.
  280. ^ Allan, News Culture (2004), pp. 113–115.
  281. ^ Allan, News Culture (2004), pp. 110–112.
  282. ^ a b Starr, Creation of the Media (2004), p. 24. "Publications weave invisible threads of connection among their readers. Once a newspaper circulates, for example, no one ever truly reads it alone. Readers know that others are also seeing it at roughly the same time, and they read it differently as a result, conscious that the information is now out in the open, spread before a public that may talk about the news and act on it."
  283. ^ Salmon, The Newspaper and the Historian (1923), p. 17. "The newspaper has ceased to be a personal organ and has become a social product; it no longer represents the interests of an individual, but it represents rather a group activity. The press groups society and unifies each group, as Scott-James has pointed out. It unifies society on national lines and thus the press of each country has developed in its own characteristic direction. It unifies the groups interested in religion, in politics, in business, in automobiles, in sports, in education, or in fashion, and from these groups having unified interests there has developed the press that ministers to each specialized group."
  284. ^ Motti Neiger, Eyal Zandberg, and Oren Meyers, "Localizing Collective Memory: Radio Broadcasts and the Construction of Regional Memory"; in On Media Memory (2011), ed. Neiger, Myers, & Zandberg; pp. 156–160. "In Israel, radio played a decisive role in establishing and consolidating the nation during the first decades after the creation of the State (Pansler, 2004). The exclusive position enjoyed by radio in the field of electronic broadcasting during the crucial first twenty years of Israel's existence since 1948, when the press was politically divided and television was absent—Israel's first television channel started broadcasting in 1968—gave it much weight in setting the collective agenda."
  285. ^ McNair, Cultural Chaos (2006), pp. 6–7. "But [news] is an illusion which, when we receive it, and when we extend to it our trust in its authority as a representation of the real, transports us from the relative isolation of our domestic environments, the parochialism of our streets and small towns, the crowded bustle of our big cities, to membership of virtual global communities, united in access to these events, communally experienced at this moment, through global communications networks. […] It is, indeed, more like the fear and exhilaration experienced by watching a movie on the big screen, but with an added viscerality contributed by the awareness that this scene, unlike a movie, is really happening, right now, to real people."
  286. ^ Park, "News as a Form of Knowledge" (1940), p. 677.
  287. ^ Geniets, Global News Challenge (2013), pp. 17–18.
  288. ^ McNair, Cultural Chaos (2006), pp. 140–144.
  289. ^ McNair, Cultural Chaos (2006), pp. 179–185.
  290. ^ Hachten, World News Prism (1996), pp. 70–72.
  291. ^ Salmon, The Newspaper and the Historian (1923), pp. 211–213.
  292. ^ Park, "News as a Form of Knowledge" (1940), pp. 685–686. "In fact, the multiplication of the means of communication has brought it about that anyone, even in the most distant part of the world, may now actually participate in events—at least as listener if not as spectator—as they actually take place in some other part of the world. We have recently listened to Mussolini address his fascist followers from a balcony of Rome; we have heard Hitler speaking over the heads of a devout congregation in the Reichstag, in Berlin, not merely to the President, but to the people, of the United States. We have even had an opportunity to hear the terms of the momentous Munich agreement ten seconds after it had been signed by the representatives of four of the leading powers in Europe and the world. The fact that acts so momentous as these can be so quickly and so publicly consummated has suddenly and completely changed the character of international politics so that one can no longer even guess what the future has in store for Europe and for the world."
  293. ^ Dayan & Katz, Media Events (1992), pp. 1–14.
  294. ^ Dayan & Katz, Media Events (1992), pp. 25–53.
  295. ^ Dayan & Katz, Media Events (1992), p. 196.
  296. ^ Paterson, Chris; Andresen, Kenneth; Hoxha, Abit (2011). ""The manufacture of an international news event: The day Kosovo was born";". Journalism. 13 (1): 103–120. doi:10.1177/1464884911400846. S2CID 145715955.
  297. ^ Perse, Media Effects And Society (2001), 57–61.
  298. ^ Perse, Media Effects And Society (2001), 73–76.
  299. ^ Hachten, World News Prism (1996), pp. 73–77.
  300. ^ Danie Du Plessis, "What's News in South Africa?" in Shoemaker & Cohen, News Around the World (2006), p. 303. "Virtually all references to the political significance of news events refer to the historical events of the first part of the 1990s. Current political events are overshadowed so greatly by the start of the political process in South Africa that they have lost much of their significance to the participants. Both black and white participants in the focus group shared this response."
  301. ^ Elizabeth A. Skewes and Heather Black, "What's News in the United States?" in Shoemaker & Cohen, News Around the World (2006), p. 329.
  302. ^ Mohammed Issa Taha Ali, "What's News in Jordan?" in Shoemaker & Cohen, News Around the World (2006), p. 252.
  303. ^ Neta Kliger-Vilenchik, "Memory-Setting: Applying Agenda-Setting Theory to the Study of Collective Memory"; in On Media Memory (2011), ed. Neiger, Myers, & Zandberg; pp. 233–234. Also see: Neta Kliger-Vilenchik, "Setting the collective memory agenda: Examining mainstream media influence on individuals' perceptions of the past"; Memory Studies 7.4, October 2014.
  304. ^ a b c Graber, Doris A. (1980). Mass Media and American Politics. Congressional Quarterly Press.
  305. ^ a b "Queen's University – Department of Political Studies". Queen's University. Archived from the original on 5 January 2016.
  306. ^ Perse, Media Effects And Society 2001; 55.
  307. ^ Mark A. Schuster, et al., "A National Survey of Stress Reactions After the September 11, 2011, Terrorist Attacks", New England Journal of Medicine, 345.20, 15 November 2001.
  308. ^ Terr; et al. (1999). "Children's symptoms in the wake of Challenger: a field study of distant-traumatic effects and an outline of related conditions". American Journal of Psychiatry. 156 (10): 1536–44. doi:10.1176/ajp.156.10.1536. PMID 10518163.
  309. ^ Gavin Rees, "The Trauma Factor", in Fowler-Watt & Allan (eds.), Journalism (2013).
  310. ^ Altheide, David L. (1997). "The News Media, the Problem Frame, and the Production of Fear". Sociological Quarterly. 38 (4): 647–668. doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.1997.tb00758.x.
  311. ^ Perse, Media Effects And Society (2001), 1–10.
  312. ^ Perse, Media Effects And Society (2001), 12. "Some media may be so pervasive and so consistent in their effects that their impact is not noticeable. After all, it is almost impossible find someone who doesn't watch television in industrialized societies. And those light viewers associate regularly with others who do watch television. Morgan (1986) suggested that 'the longer we live with television, the smaller television's observable impact may become'.
  313. ^ Zhong, "Searching for Meaning" (2006), pp. 17–18.
  314. ^ McCombs, Maxwell E.; Shaw, Donald L. (1972). "The Agenda-Setting Function of Mass Media". Public Opinion Quarterly. 36 (2): 176. doi:10.1086/267990.
  315. ^ Perse, Media Effects And Society (2001), 98–99.
  316. ^ Perse, Media Effects And Society (2001), 100. "When issues are obtrusive, or directly experienced, such as inflation, the public does not need the news media to alert them to its importance. But, the less direct experience that they have with an issue, the more they depend on the news media for awareness. So, agenda-setting appears to be stronger for less personally involving issues."
  317. ^ Tien Vu, Hong; Guo, Lei; McCombs, Maxwell E. (2014). "Exploring 'the World Outside and the Pictures in Our Heads': A Network Agenda-Setting Study". Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly. 91 (4).
  318. ^ a b "Brands set to 'stay classy' with Anchorman 2". 5 November 2013.
  319. ^ a b "How nonstop marketing killed my buzz for Anchorman 2". theweek.com. 19 December 2013.
  320. ^ a b "OPINION EXCHANGE | Don Shelby: An anchorman's take on 'Anchorman 2'". Star Tribune. 23 December 2013.
  321. ^ a b "How Facebook stole the news business". 3 February 2018.
  322. ^ a b "Facebook announces $300 million local news investment". NBC News. 15 January 2019.
  323. ^ "Facebook investing $300 million in local news initiatives". www.cbsnews.com. 15 January 2019.

Sources and further reading

[edit]
  • Allan, Stuart, News Culture. (2nd ed. McGraw Hill Open University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-335-21074-0)
  • Ayalon, Ami. The Press in the Arab Middle East: A History. (Oxford UP, 1995. ISBN 0-19-508780-1)
  • Bakker, Gerben. "Trading Facts: Arrow's Fundamental Paradox and the Origins of Global News Networks". In: International Communication and Global News Networks: Historical Perspectives. (Hampton Press, 2011).
  • Berkowitz, Dan (ed.) Social Meanings of News: A Text Reader. (SAGE, 1997. ISBN 0-7619-0075-6)
  • Boyd-Barrett, Oliver, and Tehri Rantanen (eds.). The Globalization of News. (SAGE, 1998. ISBN 0-7619-5386-8).
  • Chakravartty, Paula, and Katharine Sarikakis. Media Policy and Globalization. Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. ISBN 1-4039-7738-0
  • Cloud, Barbara. The Coming of the Frontier Press: How the West Was Really Won. (Northwestern UP, 2008. ISBN 978-0-8101-2508-7)
  • Cranfield, G.A. The Press and Society: From Caxton to Northcliffe. London: Longman, 1978. ISBN 0-582-48983-0
  • Dayan, Daniel, and Elihu Katz. Media Events: The Live Broadcasting of History. Harvard University Press, 1992. ISBN 0-674-55955-X
  • Distelrath, Günther. "The Development of the Information and Communication Systems in Germany and Japan up to the End of the Nineteenth Century." Senri Ethnological Studies 52, March 2000.
  • Fang, Irving. A History of Mass Communication: Six Information Revolutions. Boston: Focal Press (Butterworth-Heineman), 1997. ISBN 0-240-80254-3
  • Fosu, Modestus. "The Press and Political Participation: Newspapers and the Politics of Linguistic Exclusion and Inclusion in Ghana". Dissertation accepted at University of Leeds Institute of Communication Studies, June 2004.
  • Fowler-Watt, Karen, and Stuart Allan. Journalism: New Challenges v. 1.02. Centre for Journalism & Communications, Bournemouth University, 2013. ISBN 978-1-910042-00-7
  • Geniets, Anne. The Global News Challenge: Market Strategies of International Broadcasting Organizations in Developing Countries. New York: Taylor & Francis (Routledge), 2013. ISBN 978-0-415-64066-4
  • Hachten, William A, with Harva Hachten. The World News Prism: Changing Media of International Communication. Fourth edition. Iowa State University Press, 1996. ISBN 0-8138-1571-1
  • Heyd, Uriel. Reading newspapers: press and public in eighteenth-century Britain and America. Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 2012. ISBN 978-0-7294-1042-7
  • Hills, Jill. The Struggle for Control of Global Communication: The Formative Century. University of Illinois Press, 2002. ISBN 0-252-02757-4
  • John, Richard R., and Jonathan Silberstein-Loeb, eds. Making News: The Political Economy of Journalism in Britain and America from the Glorious Revolution to the Internet (2015).
  • Kallioinen, Mika."Information, communication technology, and business in the nineteenth century: The case of a Finnish merchant house". Scandinavian Economic History Review 52.1, 2004.
  • Kessler, Karlhenz. "'Royal Roads' and Other Questions of the Neo-Assyrian Communication System". Proceedings of the 10th Anniversary Symposium of the Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project: Helsinki, 7–11 September 1995.
  • Lampe, Markus, and Florian Ploeckl. "Spanning the Globe: The Rise of Global Communications Systems and First Globalization". Australian Economic History Review 54.3, November 2014.
  • Lim, Hyunyang Kim. "'Take Writing': News, Information, And Documentary Culture in Late Medieval England". Dissertation accepted at University of Maryland, 2006.
  • Manoff, Robert Karl, and Michael Schudson (eds.). Reading The News: A Pantheon Guide to Popular Culture. New York: Pantheon Books, 1986. ISBN 0-394-54362-9
  • McCusker, J.J., & C. Gravesteijn. The Beginnings of Commercial and Financial Journalism: The Commodity Price Currents, Exchange Rate Currents, and Money Currents of Early Modern Europe. Amsterdam: Neha, 1991. ISBN 90-71617-27-0
  • McNair, Brian. Cultural Chaos: Journalism, news and power in a globalised world. New York: Routledge (Informa), 2006. ISBN 978-0-415-33913-1
  • Milner, Stephen J. "'Fanno bandire, notificare, et expressamente comandare': Town Criers and the Information Economy of Renaissance Florence." I Tatti Studies in the Italian Renaissance 16.1/2, Fall 2013.
  • Mohammadi, Ali (ed.). International Communication and Globalization: A Critical Introduction. London: SAGE, 1997. ISBN 0-7619-5553-4
  • Neiger, Motti, Oren Myers, and Eyal Zandberg. On Media Memory: Collective Memory in a New Media Age. Houndsmills, Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. ISBN 978-0-230-27568-3
  • Parenti, Michael. Inventing Reality: The Politics of News Media. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993. ISBN 0-312-08629-6
  • Park, Robert E. "News as a Form of Knowledge: A Chapter in the Sociology of Knowledge", American Journal of Sociology 45.5, March 1940.
  • Palmer, Michael B. International News Agencies (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2019) excerpt
  • Parsons, Wayne. The Power of the Financial Press: Journalism and economic opinion in Britain and America (Edward Elgar, 1989). ISBN 1-85278-039-8
  • Perse, Elizabeth M. Media Effects And Society. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbau Associates, 2001. ISBN 0-8058-2505-3
  • Pettegree, Andrew. The Invention of News: How the World Came to Know About Itself. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2014. ISBN 978-0-300-17908-8
  • Rampton, Sheldon, and John Stauber. Trust Us, We're Experts: How Industry Manipulates Science and Gambles With Your Future. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam, 2001. ISBN 1-58542-059-X
  • Salmon, Lucy Maynard. The Newspaper and the Historian. New York: Oxford University Press (American Branch), 1923.
  • Schudson, Michael. Discovering the News: A Social History of American Newspapers. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1978. ISBN 0-465-01669-3
  • Shoemaker, Pamela J. and Akiba A. Cohen (eds.). News Around the World: Content, Practitioners, and the Public. New York, Routledge, 2006. ISBN 0-415-97505-0
  • Silberstein-Loeb, Jonathan. The International Distribution of News: The Associated Press, Press Association, and Reuters, 1848–1947 (2014)
  • Silverblatt, Art, and Nikolai Zlobin. International Communications: A Media Literacy Approach. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, Inc., 2004. ISBN 0-7656-0974-6
  • Smith, Anthony. The Newspaper: An International History. London: Thames & Hudson, 1979. [ISBN missing]
  • Starr, Paul. The Creation of the Media: Political Origins of Modern Communication. New York: Basic Books, 2004. ISBN 0-465-08193-2
  • Stephens, Mitchell. A History of News: From the Drum to the Satellite. New York: Viking, 1988. ISBN 0-670-81378-8
  • Straubhaar, Joseph, and Robert LaRose. Communications Media in the Information Society. Updated edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company (Thompson), 1997. ISBN 0-534-52128-2
  • Wenzlhuemer, Roland. Connecting the Nineteenth-Century World: The Telegraph and Globalization. Cambridge University Press, 2013. ISBN 978-1-107-02528-8
  • Wolfe, Thomas C. Governing Soviet Journalism: The Press and the Socialist Person After Stalin. Indiana University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-253-34589-8
  • Wood, James. History of International Broadcasting. London: Peter Peregrinus Ltd., 1992. ISBN 0-86341-281-5
  • Zhang, Xiantao. The Origins of the Modern Chinese Press: The influence of the Protestant missionary press in late Qing China. Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2007. ISBN 0-415-38066-9
  • Zhong, Bu. "Searching for Meaning: Multi-Level Cognitive Processing of News Decision Making Among U.S. and Chinese Journalists". Dissertation accepted at University of Maryland, College Park, 2006.
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