It began with a white lie, the small kind that slides easily into the pre-dawn hush. I told you we were going for sunrise yoga out in the desert, that a friend had raved about the calm and how the dunes turned gold in early light. You didn't question it. In Dubai, there is always someone who knows a place or a person or a perfect experience. You tied your hair back, grabbed a bottle of water, and we slipped down the apartment hallway past the quietly humming air conditioners and the newspaper folded like a secret under our neighbor's door.
The highway was a ribbon of sodium orange. Construction cranes raised their stiff arms in the half-light, and from the car I watched the city shrink in the rearview, towers dissolving into a darker shade of sky. There's a moment when Dubai ends-when the malls and fountains and glass are behind you-and the horizon flattens into a possibility. You looked out the window and pointed to a caravan of camels etched black against the sand. “See?” you said. “Yoga is going to be perfect.”
By the time we turned onto a sandy track, dawn was loosening its grip on the night. Hot air balloon Dubai anniversary ride . I pulled into a patch of ground where a few other cars were idling, silhouettes of people stepping out, breath ghosting in the cool air. A man with a scarf around his neck handed us small paper cups of sweet karak. Hot air balloon Dubai Arabian desert The steam curled in front of your face. “Where are the mats?” you asked, but the question hung there because the desert has its own grammar.
On the ground ahead of us lay what looked like a sleeping giant-swaths of ripstop fabric gathered in a tumble, ropes snaking outward. Hot air balloon Dubai quiet sunrise Then the first cough and flare of a burner cut the silence, a burst of dragon breath that sent a lick of heat into the morning. You turned to me slowly as the shape rose, a living color swelling from the sand, stripes of red and gold and blue catching the light. The wicker basket, tall and unfamiliar, creaked softly as the crew checked lines. And then you saw it: the small pennant fixed to the side, the scrawl of ink on kraft paper around the rim-Happy Birthday.
You laughed, half bewildered, half delighted. “You didn't,” you said, but I had, and now there was no taking it back. The pilot, a man with wind-lines etched deep into his smile, beckoned us in. “We don't steer,” he told the group as we climbed over the edge of the basket, “we surrender. Hot air balloon Dubai sky The wind is the captain, I'm just the poet.” People chuckled; nerves needed somewhere to go.
With a wash of heat, we lifted. It wasn't a jump or a jerk, just a slow undoing of the ground's insistence. The basket grew smaller to those below and larger to us as the desert unscrolled. My stomach gave a brief, childish flutter-the first step from sand to sky-and then it was gone, replaced by a silence that felt almost like a sound. The burners hissed in measured breaths; otherwise, we were a whisper moving across a page.
Below, the dunes collected themselves into lines and ribs and soft, sleeping backs.
Hot air balloon Dubai emergency trained crew
Hot air balloon Dubai eco friendly activity
Hot air balloon Dubai soft light
Hot air balloon Dubai wind conditions
The early sun broke over the Hajar Mountains in a spill of molten color, edges sharpened, shadows pulled long like ink strokes. I could pick out the punctuation marks of life: three oryx like white commas, a fox skittering back to a scrubby bush, the fossilized tracks of last night's tires curving into calligraphy. Far to the west, the city had miniaturized itself into suggestion-the Burj Khalifa a silver pin rising from a tray of glass, the rest of the skyline a rumor.
You leaned into me. Your birthday, this impossible height, the thud of my heart steadying into something like awe. “I thought you forgot,” you confessed. It has been a year of busy calendars, of messages skimmed and promises rolled forward like rugs we kept meaning to unroll. Dubai has a way of measuring value in surface area, in tallest and biggest and brightest. But here, where there was nothing to sell us except air and light, the metrics changed. The gift was time made weightless, an hour pinned to the rim of the world.
The pilot pulled a ribbon to check the wind, a bright strip flickering against the basket's edge. He told us we were drifting north, that in a few minutes we'd cross a dry riverbed and a stand of ghaf trees where sometimes, if we were lucky, we'd see a falconer training his bird. Each sentence was a soft rope dropped into our minds to anchor the wonder. He pointed at the sand. “You see those seams? That's where the wind stitched last night up to today.”
We floated over a tiny encampment where a father and daughter waved, the girl's pink hoodie shocking against the earth tones. You waved back as if your arm could bridge the distance. People in the basket swapped stories in low voices-anniversaries, bucket lists, a honeymoon they were extending as long as their savings and visa would allow. I tried to memorize your profile in the slanting light-how the sunrise colored your cheekbones, how you bit your lip in concentration at a shadow of movement on the ground. Miles above schedules, it felt easier to notice you.
When the burners cut for a long stretch, the silence grew underscored by a truth I'd never considered: up here, the wind doesn't feel like wind.
Hot air balloon Dubai sky
Hot air balloon Dubai emergency trained crew
Hot air balloon Dubai quiet sunrise
Hot air balloon Dubai photography
Because we moved with it, there was no resistance pressing against our faces, no reminder of speed. We were cradled in the moving element itself. It made me think about control, about birthdays and the years they mark. How so much of life is pushing and steering and muscling things into place. Yet the loveliest moments sometimes ask for release. To float, to trust, to let the wind decide.
The landing came with the pilot's practiced calm. “Knees bent, hold on to the rope handles, smile for the dramatic finish,” he said, and we did, laughing as the basket bumped, then scooted, then settled into the forgiving arms of a low dune. The balloon exhaled in a long, theatrical sigh, collapsing into color on the sand. The chase crew arrived in a cloud of dust, all efficiency and jokes, and we spilled out of the basket, legs a little wobbly on the honest ground.
Under a shade of canvas strung between poles, breakfast was already conjuring itself into being-shakshouka still sizzling, labneh in shallow bowls glazed with olive oil, warm bread in woven baskets, tiny glasses of mint tea that felt like kisses of heat on the tongue. Someone, maybe everyone's someone, had thought of cake. It was small, a frosted disk that emerged from a cooler like a magician's reveal. A plastic knife cut it into generous wedges. Hot air balloon Dubai photography When they sang, the notes were wobbly and off in the most perfect way, strangers braid-plaiting their voices into a gift. You closed your eyes for the wish, and sand grains, stubborn and celebratory, stuck to the frosting.
On the ride back, the sun had fully claimed the day. Hot air balloon Dubai desert sunrise The road shimmered, and the city reassembled itself-the white of villas, the glint of glass, the impossible needle of the tower. Your hair smelled faintly of propane and desert. You scrolled through photos for a minute then set your phone face down on your lap, as if saving the images from being thinned out by too much replay. “Thank you,” you said, simple as water.
Later, we would find a few grains of sand at the bottom of your bag, tiny brown moons still clinging to the curve of leather. They'd shake loose weeks afterward, dropping onto the kitchen counter or the entryway rug, small reminders of our morning refusal to be practical. In a city where spectacle is standard, the hot air balloon Dubai birthday surprise felt like a quiet rebellion. Not louder, not taller-just higher, and somehow more honest.
Years from now, when birthdays stack like books we mean to read again, I hope we remember the heat of the burners, the pilot's easy laugh, the way the dunes pressed their fingerprints into the light. I hope we remember that surrender can be its own kind of celebration. That for an hour, we drifted above the architecture of our days and found that love, like air, expands to fill the space it's given.
About Tourism in Dubai
The Al Fahidi Historical Neighbourhood, also called Al Bastakiya, is Dubai's historic district and major tourist destination.
Tourism in Dubai is a major part of the economy of Dubai. Dubai was the third most visited city in the world in 2023 with 17 million international visitors according to Euromonitor International.[1][2] Dubai hosts more than 800 hotels with more than 150,000 rooms.[3][4]
History
[edit]
The discovery of oil in 1966 kick-started the development of present Dubai, however Sheikh Hamad bin Maktoum (ruler from 1958 till 1990) realised one day Dubai would run out of oil and started building an economy that would outlast it.[5] A quote commonly attributed to Sheikh Rashid reflected his concern that Dubai's oil, which was discovered in 1966 and which began production in 1969, would run out within a few generations. Sheikh Rashid stated "My grandfather rode a camel, my father rode a camel, I drive a Mercedes, my son drives a Land Rover, his son will drive a Land Rover, but his son will ride a camel".[6] Sheikh Rashid realized early he needed to diversify the emirate of Dubai's economy by building on the city's trading history and therefore he set out to establish Dubai as the region's trade and service hub. By 1979, he was successful in establishing the Jebel Ali Port, which became the logical shipping centre for the entire United Arab Emirates and the world's largest man-made port. He also upgraded Dubai International Airport and built the Dubai World Trade Centre, which was then the tallest building in the Middle East. By the end of the 1970s, the stage was set for the diversification of Dubai's economy away from oil and into other areas such as tourism.[7]
In 1989 the Dubai Commerce and Tourism Promotion Board was established, to promote Dubai as a luxury destination for the up-tier market and influential business sectors. In January 1997, it was replaced with the Department of Tourism and Commerce Marketing (DTCM).[8]
In May 2013, the government of Dubai launched the Dubai Tourism Strategy 2020, with the key objective to attract 20 million visitors a year by 2020 and making Dubai a first choice destination for international leisure travellers as well as business travellers.[9] In 2018, the strategy was expanded by setting new goals of attracting 21-23 million visitors in 2022 and 23-25 million visitors by 2025.[10] The key objectives from 2013 and 2018 were not met due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
The need to maintain its tourism industry has hampered Dubai's response to the COVID-19 pandemic.[11] Along with COVID-19 Dubai's tourism sector has also been hurt by a greater international awareness of the status of human rights in the emirate and in particular the treatment of Princess Latifa bint Mohammed Al Maktoum.[12]
In November 2022, Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid announced a national tourism strategy until 2031. The goal of the strategy is to attract Dh 100 billion in additional tourism investments (so that the tourism sector's contribution will be Dh450bn of Dubai's GDP in 2031) and receive 40 million hotel guests in 2031. The strategy includes 25 initiatives and policies to support the development of the tourism sector in the country.[13]
In April 2025, the Dubai Department of Economy and Tourism introduced a new programme offering media training to students for promotion of tourism in the UAE. Applicants are provided with flights, luxury apartment and three months of income, along with certification from Dubai College of Tourism for posting about traveling experiences in Dubai on social media. According to Middle East Eye, this program aims to whitewash its human rights violations and war crime accusations in Sudan.[14]
Visitors and visitor spending
[edit]
Since 1982, Dubai continued to be one of the fastest growing destinations for tourists. In 2002, visitors were mainly from other Gulf Cooperation Council members which accounted for 34% of tourists, South Asia accounted for 25%, other Arab states 16%, Europe 15%, and Africa 9%. In 2003, revenue from tourism exceeded $1 billion and surpassed oil revenues to directly and indirectly account for over 17% and 28% of GDP respectively.[15]
From January to June 2019 8.36 million international tourists visited Dubai. Most of the visitors were from India (997,000) followed by Saudi Arabia (755,000) and the United Kingdom (586,000).[16]
Mastercard's Global Destination Cities Index 2019 found that tourists spend more in Dubai than in any other country. In 2018, the country topped the list for the fourth year in a row with a total spend of $30.82 billion, a 3.8% increase over 2017 ($29.70 billion). The average spend per day was $553.[17]
In 2019, Dubai attracted a total of 16.73 million tourists, which was an increase of 5.09% on the previous year. However, in 2020, the number of visitors dropped to 5.51 million due to the coronavirus pandemic.[18]
Year
Total
international
visitors [19][20][21][15][22][23]
Increase/decrease
Visitor spending
($m)[24]
1982
374,400
—N/a
1990
632,903
69.04%
1991
716,642
13.23%
1992
944,350
31.77%
1993
1,088,000
15.21%
1994
1,239,000
13.88%
1995
1,601,000
29.22%
632.0
1996
1,768,000
10.43%
743.0
1997
1,792,000
1.36%
814.0
1998
2,184,000
21.88%
859.0
1999
2,481,000
13.60%
893.0
2000
3,027,000
22.01%
1,063.0
2001
3,626,625
19.81%
1,200.0
2002
4,756,280
31.15%
1,332.0
2003
4,980,228
4.71%
1,438.0
2004
5,420,000
8.83%
1,593.0
2005
6,160,003
13.65%
3,218.0
2006
6,441,670
4.57%
4,972.0
2007
6,951,798[25][26]
7.12%
6,072.0
2008
6,996,449[25]
0.64%
7,162.0
2009
7,580,000[27]
8.34%
7,352.0
2010
8,410,000
10.95%
8,577.0
2011
9,910,000
17.84%
9,204.0
2012
10,950,000
10.49%
10,924.0
2013
12,900,000
17.81%
12,389.0
2014
13,200,000
2.33%
15,221.0
2015
14,200,000
7.58%
25,587.1
2016
14,870,000
4.72%
28,657.4
2017
15,790,000
6.19%
29,705.5
2018
15,920,000
0.82%
34,609.5
2019
16,730,000
5.09%
38,413.3
2020
5,510,000[a]
-67.07%
24,615.4
2021
7,280,000[b]
32.12%
2022
14,360,000[28]
97.25%
2023
17,150,000[29]
19.4%
2024
18,720,000[30]
9.2%
Accommodation
[edit]
Main article: List of hotels in Dubai
Burj Al Arab hotel
In the last three years, Dubai saw an increase in 4 and 5 star hotels and number of rooms, but a decrease in standard hotel apartments. The total number of rooms increased by 9,098 from 2015 to 2017, an increase of 9.25%. Prior to the Expo 2020 hotels in Dubai were reducing room rates to stimulate demand as supply accelerated. Based on data of August 2019, Dubai hoteliers reported a 7.6% rise in supply against 7.4% increase in demand.[31] Average room rates stood at AED 486 in June 2019 while in the same month of 2018 average room rates were at 544 AED.[32] In July 2019, Dubai's Jumeirah Group LLC fired 500 people due to a decline in tourism. In the second quarter of 2019, hospitality sector has had the worst quarter since 2009.[33]
Hotel inventory numbers 2014-2023[19]
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
Total 5 star hotels
91
96
103
113
128
134
143
151
157
Total 5 star hotel rooms
31,551
33,122
35,853
38,543
43,133
44,067
47,035
49,585
51,809
Total 4 star hotels
106
112
122
146
158
161
181
189
194
Total 4 star hotel rooms
21,208
22,990
25,289
29,908
33,120
34,905
40,377
42,505
43,283
Total 1-3 star hotels
264
267
260
260
258
225
243
270
274
Total 1-3 star hotel rooms
19,714
21,767
21,591
22,634
24,491
21,732
25,384
28,512
28,789
Total hotel apartments (deluxe/superior)
66
66
65
68
68
74
80
82
85
Total deluxe/superior rooms
9,641
9,519
9,786
10,522
10,520
11,845
12,606
13,113
13,842
Total hotel apartments (standard)
150
140
131
129
129
117
108
112
111
Total standard rooms
16,219
15,447
14,930
14,360
14,856
14,398
12,548
12,781
12,568
Total establishments
657
677
681
681
716
741
711
755
804
821
Total available rooms
92,333
98,333
102,845
107,431
115,967
126,120
126,947
137,950
146,496
150,291
Average occupancy
79%
77%
78%
78%
76%
75%
54%
67%
73%
77%
Visitor Statistics
[edit]
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Rank
Country
6/2023
2022
1
India
1,223,000
1,842,000
5
Russia
616,000
758,000
4
United Kingdom
555,000
1,043,000
3
Saudi Arabia
538,000
1,216,000
2
Oman
511,000
1,311,000
6
United States
362,000
590,000
7
Germany
329,000
422,000
17
China
260,000
177,000
10
Iran
196,000
328,000
13
Israel
196,000
239,000
8
France
180,000
364,000
11
Egypt
168,000
288,000
12
Kuwait
152,000
260,000
9
Pakistan
152,000
356,000
14
Kazakhstan
145,000
234,000
15
Italy
130,000
212,000
19
Philippines
125,000
158,000
16
Australia
121,000
184,000
18
Canada
110,000
158,000
19
Japan
110,000
148,000
Attractions
[edit]
Main article: Tourist attractions in Dubai
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Al Fahidi Fort
Aspects of Dubai's old culture, while occasionally overshadowed by the boom in economic development, can be found by visiting places around the creek, which splits Dubai into two halves, Bur Dubai and Deira. The buildings lining the Bur Dubai side of the Creek provide the main flavor of the old city. Heritage Village is one of the few remaining parts of historical Dubai, containing preserved buildings. The adjoining Diving Village offers exhibits on pearl diving and fishing. The Diving Village forms part of an ambitious plan to turn the entire "Shindagha" area into a cultural city, recreating life in Dubai as it was in days gone by.
Boats on Dubai water line night view
Other attractions include the Sheikh Saeed Al Maktoum House; the Dubai Museum in the restored Al Fahidi Fort, which was erected around 1799; and the Heritage Village of Hatta, situated 115 kilometers southeast of Dubai City in the heart of the rocky Hatta Mountains. The history of the village can be traced back 2000 – 3000 years. It consists of 30 buildings, each differing in size, interior layout and building materials used. Great care was taken to use the same materials as those used when originally built during the renovation such as mud, hay, sandalwood and palm fronds. The Sharia Mosque is an old mosque built in the early 19th century using the same building materials and consists of a large prayer hall, a court and courtyard, minaret and other utility rooms.[34] Other museums include the Al Ahmadiya School.
Shopping
[edit]
Main article: List of shopping malls in Dubai
Dubai Fountain at the Dubai Mall
Dubai has been nicknamed the "shopping capital of the Middle East."[35][36] The city draws large numbers of shopping tourists from countries within the region and from as far as Eastern Europe, Africa and the Indian Subcontinent. Dubai is known for its souk districts. Souk is the Arabic word for market or place where any kind of goods are brought or exchanged. Traditionally, dhows from the Far East, China, Sri Lanka, and India would discharge their cargo and the goods would be bargained over in the souks adjacent to the docks.[37]
Modern shopping malls and boutiques are also found in the city. Dubai Duty Free at Dubai International Airport offers merchandise catering to the multinational passengers using Dubai International Airport. Outside of Duty Free areas and major sales, Dubai has a reputation for being one of the most expensive shopping destinations in the world.[38]
While boutiques, some electronics shops, department stores and supermarkets may operate on a fixed-price basis, most other outlets consider friendly negotiation as a way of life.
Dubai's numerous shopping centres cater for every consumer's need. Cars, clothing, jewellery, electronics, furnishing, sporting equipment and any other goods will all be likely to be under the same roof.[39]
The Dubai Shopping Festival is a month-long festival held during the month of January each year. During the festival the entire emirate becomes one massive shopping mall. Additionally, the festival brings together music shows, art exhibitions, and folk dances.[40]
The Dubai Summer Surprises (DSS) is the summer version of Dubai Shopping Festival held during June, July and August. Dubai Government launched Dubai Summer Surprises in 1998 in order to promote Dubai as a family holiday destination. DSS offers fun, entertainment, food deals and great offers on shopping.
Cultural sensitivity
[edit]
See also: Culture of Dubai
Tourists are required to obey some Muslim religious restrictions in public even if they are not Muslim themselves, such as refraining from eating or drinking in public places in the daytime during Ramadan.[41]
Dubai has a modest dress code as part of its criminal law.[42] Sleeveless tops and short dresses are not encouraged at Dubai Mall.[43][44] Clothes are advised to be in appropriate lengths.[42]
Homosexuality is criminalized in Dubai, including for tourists. However, there is a vibrant underground gay scene in Dubai and authorities do not actively search for homosexuals to enforce the law.[45]
Transportation
[edit]
Main article: Transportation in Dubai
Dubai International Airport is the world's busiest airport by international passenger traffic.
Most capitals and other major cities have direct flights to Dubai. More than 120 airlines operate to and from Dubai International Airport to more than 260 destinations. Dubai International Airport is the world's busiest airport by international passenger traffic.[46] Dubai is also the home base of the airline Emirates, which operates scheduled services to more than 100 destinations.
In June 2009 Emirates designated a special handling area at departures and arrivals for passengers with special needs, allowing wheelchair passengers to receive a more personalized service.[47][better source needed]
The establishment of the first cruise terminal in Dubai in 2001 and the opening of the enhanced New Dubai Cruise Terminal in February 2010 with higher handling capacity has drawn the attention of cruise line operators. Cruises to Dubai sail from: Singapore, Sydney, Athens, Dover, Venice, Cape Town, Civitavecchia, Piraeus, Alexandria, Istanbul, New York City, Southampton, Barcelona, Fort Lauderdale, Miami, Los Angeles, Mumbai, Hong Kong, Shanghai, Monte Carlo, Mombasa, Victoria, and Cairns among others.[48][better source needed]
The United Arab Emirates has a network of roads that connect major towns and villages, including a multi-lane highway between Dubai and Abu Dhabi, with access to and from the bordering countries of Saudi Arabia and Oman. Highways and main roads in Dubai and the United Arab Emirates are designated by an Emirate Route Number. Speed limits are displayed on road signs and are usually 60–80 km/h (37–50 mph) around town and 100–120 km/h (62–75 mph) elsewhere.[49][better source needed]
Dubai ranked third in the best taxi services behind Tokyo and Singapore.[50][better source needed]
Illicit drugs
[edit]
Travelers entering Dubai are warned for harsh penalties regarding illicit drug use or smuggling. Authorities in Dubai use highly sensitive equipment to conduct thorough searches to find trace amount of illegal substances.[51] A senior Dubai judge was quoted on February 11, 2008, by the Dubai City News saying, "These laws help discourage anyone from carrying or using drugs. Even if the quantity of illegal drugs found on someone is 0.05 grams, they will be found guilty. The penalty is a minimum of four years. The message is clear — drugs will not be tolerated."[51]
Health
[edit]
Further information: Healthcare in the United Arab Emirates
No special immunizations are required, but tourists are encouraged to purchase appropriate medical insurance before travelling. Government immunization programs have led to recognition by a travel magazine.[47] As a latest addition to the established modern health care system, Dubai offers online health care contacts of virtually all medical doctors in Dubai.[52]
Sports tourism
[edit]
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Dubai hosts the following international championships:
Dubai World Cup – the richest horse race in the world
Dubai Classic - the golf championship
Barclays Dubai Tennis for both men and women
UIM World Powerboat racing
Rugby Sevens
Dubai International Rally
Dubai Snooker Classic
The UAE Desert Challenge
The Standard Chartered Dubai Marathon
See also
[edit]
United Arab Emirates portal
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Dubai.
Developments in Dubai
List of development projects in Dubai
List of tourist attractions in the United Arab Emirates
Palm Islands
Notes
[edit]
^Due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
^Due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Dubai travel guide from Wikivoyage
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About Hot air balloon
Lighter-than-air aircraft
This article is about hot air balloons themselves. For the activity, see Hot air ballooning. For other meanings, see Hot air balloon (disambiguation) and Air balloon (disambiguation).
"Balloon Ride" redirects here. For the song, see My First Album (Peppa Pig album).
Hot air balloon in flightNovelty hot air balloons resembling anthropomorphized beesNovelty hot air balloon resembling the Abbey of Saint Gall
A hot air balloon is a lighter-than-air aircraft consisting of a bag, called an envelope, which contains heated air. Suspended beneath is a gondola or wicker basket (in some long-distance or high-altitude balloons, a capsule), which carries passengers and a source of heat, in most cases an open flame caused by burning liquid propane. The heated air inside the envelope makes it buoyant, since it has a lower density than the colder air outside the envelope. As with all aircraft, hot air balloons cannot fly beyond the atmosphere. The envelope does not have to be sealed at the bottom, since the air inside the envelope is at about the same pressure as the surrounding air. In modern sport balloons the envelope is generally made from nylon fabric, and the inlet of the balloon (closest to the burner flame) is made from a fire-resistant material such as Nomex. Modern balloons have been made in many shapes, such as rocket ships and the shapes of various commercial products, though the traditional shape is used for most non-commercial and many commercial applications.
The hot air balloon is the first successful human-carrying flight technology. The first untethered manned hot air balloon flight in the world was performed in Paris, France, by Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier and François Laurent d'Arlandes on November 21, 1783,[1] in a balloon created by the Montgolfier brothers.[2] Hot air balloons that can be propelled through the air rather than simply drifting with the wind are known as thermal airships.
History
[edit]
Main article: History of ballooning
Premodern and unmanned balloons
[edit]
A sky lantern
A precursor of the hot air balloon was the sky lantern (simplified Chinese: 孔明灯; traditional Chinese: 孔明燈). Zhuge Liang of the Shu Han kingdom, during the Three Kingdoms era (220–280 CE), used these airborne lanterns for military signaling.[3] The Mongolian army studied Kongming lanterns from China and used them in the Battle of Legnica during the Mongol invasion of Poland in the 13th century.[4] This is the first time ballooning was known in the western world.
In the 18th century the Portuguese Jesuit priest Bartolomeu de Gusmão in colonial Brazil envisioned an aerial apparatus named Passarola, which was the predecessor of the hot air balloon. The Passarola was intended to serve as an air vessel in order to facilitate communication and as a strategical device.[5] In 1709 John V of Portugal decided to fund Bartolomeu de Gusmão's project following a petition made by the Jesuit priest,[6] and an unmanned demonstration was performed at Casa da Índia in the presence of John V and the queen, Maria Anna of Austria, with the Italian cardinal Michelangelo Conti, two members of the Portuguese Royal Academy of History, one Portuguese diplomat and one chronicler serving as witnesses. This event would bring some European attention to this event and this project. A later article dated on October 20, 1786, by the London Daily Universal Register would state that the inventor was able to raise himself by the use of his prototype. Also in 1709, the Portuguese Jesuit wrote Manifesto summário para os que ignoram poderse navegar pelo elemento do ar (Short Manifesto for those who are unaware that is possible to sail through the element air); he also left designs for a manned air vessel.
In the 1970s, balloonist Julian Nott hypothesized that the Nazca Lines geoglyphs' creation two millennia ago could have been guided by Nazca leaders in a balloon, possibly the earliest hot air balloon flights in human history.[7] To support this theory, in 1975 he designed and piloted the Nazca Prehistoric Balloon, claiming to have used only methods and materials available to the Pre-Inca Peruvians 1,000 years ago.[8][9]
First manned flight
[edit]
A model of the Montgolfier brothers' balloon at the London Science Museum
The French brothers Joseph-Michel and Jacques-Étienne Montgolfier developed a hot-air balloon in Annonay, Ardèche, France, and demonstrated it publicly on September 19, 1783, making an unmanned flight lasting 10 minutes. After experimenting with unmanned balloons and flights with animals, the first balloon flight with humans aboard, a tethered flight, performed on or around October 15, 1783, by Jean-Francois Pilatre de Rozier, who made at least one tethered flight from the yard of the Reveillon workshop in the Faubourg Saint-Antoine. Later that same day, Pilatre de Rozier became the second human to ascend into the air, reaching an altitude of 26 m (85 ft), the length of the tether.[10][11] The first free flight with human passengers was made a few weeks later, on November 21, 1783.[2] King Louis XVI had originally decreed that condemned criminals would be the first pilots, but de Rozier, along with Marquis François d'Arlandes, petitioned successfully for the honor.[12][13][14] The first military use of a hot air balloon happened in 1794 during the battle of Fleurus, when the French used the balloon l'Entreprenant for observation.[15]
Modern balloons
[edit]
A hot air balloon over the city of Helsinki in September 2009Hot air balloons, Cappadocia sunriseA pair of Hopper balloonsBristol International Balloon Fiesta
Modern hot air balloons, with an onboard heat source, were developed by Ed Yost and Jim Winker, beginning during the 1950s; their work resulted in his a first successful flight on October 22, 1960.[16] The first modern hot air balloon to be made in the United Kingdom (UK) was the Bristol Belle, built in 1967. Presently, hot air balloons are used primarily for recreation.
Records
[edit]
Altitude
[edit]
On November 26, 2005 Vijaypat Singhania set the world altitude record for highest hot air balloon flight, reaching 21,027 m (68,986 ft). He took off from downtown Mumbai, India, and landed 240 km (150 mi) south in Panchale.[17]
The previous record of 19,811 m (64,997 ft) had been set by Per Lindstrand on June 6, 1988, in Plano, Texas.
Speed
[edit]
On January 15, 1991, Per Lindstrand (born in Sweden, but resident in the UK) and Richard Branson of the UK flew 7,671.91 km (4,767.10 mi) from Japan to Northern Canada in the “Virgin Pacific Flyer”. With a volume of 74,000 cubic meters (2.6 million cubic feet), the balloon envelope was the largest ever built for a hot air craft. Designed to fly in the trans-oceanic jet streams, the Pacific Flyer recorded the fastest ground speed for a manned balloon at 394 km/h (245 mph).
Length
[edit]
The longest duration record was set by Swiss psychiatrist Bertrand Piccard (Auguste Piccard's grandson) and Briton Brian Jones, flying in the Breitling Orbiter 3. It was the first nonstop trip around the world by balloon. The balloon left Château-d'Oex, Switzerland, on March 1, 1999, and landed at 1:02 a.m. on March 21 in the Egyptian desert 500 km (300 mi) south of Cairo. The two men exceeded distance, endurance, and time records, traveling 19 days, 21 hours, and 55 minutes.
Briefest trip around the world
[edit]
Steve Fossett, flying solo, exceeded the record for briefest time traveling around the world on 3 July 2002 on his sixth attempt,[18] in 320 h 33 min.[19] Fedor Konyukhov flew solo round the world on his first attempt in a hybrid hot air/helium balloon from 11 to 23 July 2016[20] for a round-the world time of 268 h 20 min.[19]
Construction
[edit]
A hot air balloon for manned flight uses a single-layered, fabric gas bag (lifting "envelope"), with an opening at the bottom called the mouth or throat. Attached to the envelope is a basket, or gondola, for carrying the passengers. Mounted above the basket and centered in the mouth is the "burner", which injects a flame into the envelope, heating the air within. The heater or burner is fueled by propane, a liquefied gas stored in pressure vessels, similar to high-pressure forklift cylinders.[21][22]
Envelope
[edit]
Modern hot air balloons are usually made of materials such as ripstop nylon or dacron (a polyester).[23]
A hot air balloon is inflated partially with cold air from a gasoline-powered fan, before the propane burners are used for final inflation.
During the manufacturing process, the material is cut into panels and sewn together, along with structural load tapes that carry the weight of the gondola or basket. The individual sections, which extend from the throat to the crown (top) of the envelope, are known as gores or gore sections. Envelopes can have as few as 4 gores or as many as 24 or more.[24]
Envelopes often have a crown ring at their very top. This is a hoop of smooth metal, usually aluminium, and approximately 30 cm (1 ft) in diameter. Vertical load tapes from the envelope are attached to the crown ring.
At the bottom of the envelope the vertical load tapes are sewn into loops that are connected to cables (one cable per load tape). These cables, often referred to as flying wires, are connected to the basket by carabiners.
Seams
[edit]
The most common technique for sewing panels together is called the French felled, French fell, or double lap seam.[25][26][27][28] The two pieces of fabric are folded over on each other at their common edge, possibly with a load tape as well, and sewn together with two rows of parallel stitching. Other methods include a flat lap seam, in which the two pieces of fabric are held together simply with two rows of parallel stitching, and a zigzag, where parallel zigzag stitching holds a double lap of fabric.[27]
Coatings
[edit]
Hot air balloon safari in Maasai Mara
The fabric (or at least part of it, the top 1/3, for example) may be coated with a sealer, such as silicone or polyurethane, to make it impermeable to air.[29] It is often the degradation of this coating and the corresponding loss of impermeability that ends the effective life of an envelope, not weakening of the fabric itself. Heat, moisture, and mechanical wear-and-tear during set-up and pack-up are the primary causes of degradation. Once an envelope becomes too porous to fly, it may be retired and discarded or perhaps used as a "rag bag": cold-inflated and opened for children to run through. Products for recoating the fabric are becoming available commercially.[30]
Sizes and capacity
[edit]
A range of envelope sizes is available. The smallest, one-person, basket-less balloons (called "Hoppers" or "Cloudhoppers") have as little as 600 m3 (21,000 cu ft) of envelope volume;[31] for a perfect sphere the radius would be around 5 m (16 ft). At the other end of the scale, balloons used by commercial sightseeing operations may be able to carry well over two dozen people, with envelope volumes of up to 17,000 m3 (600,000 cu ft).[31] The most-used size is about 2,800 m3 (99,000 cu ft), allowing to carry 3 to 5 people.
Vents
[edit]
The parachute vent at the top of an envelope, as seen from below through the mouth
The top of the balloon usually has a vent of some sort, enabling the pilot to release hot air to slow an ascent, start a descent, or increase the rate of descent, usually for landing. Some hot air balloons have turning vents, which are side vents that, when opened, cause the balloon to rotate. Such vents are particularly useful for balloons with rectangular baskets, to facilitate aligning the wider side of the basket for landing.[32]
The most common type of top vent is a disk-shaped flap of fabric called a parachute vent, invented by Tracy Barnes.[33] The fabric is connected around its edge to a set of "vent lines" that converge in the center. (The arrangement of fabric and lines roughly resembles a parachute—thus the name.) These "vent lines" are themselves connected to a control line that runs to the basket. A parachute vent is opened by pulling on the control line. Once the control line is released, the pressure of the remaining hot air pushes the vent fabric back into place. A parachute vent can be opened briefly while in flight to initiate a rapid descent. (Slower descents are initiated by allowing the air in the balloon to cool naturally.) The vent is pulled open completely to collapse the balloon after landing.
An older, and presently less commonly used, style of top vent is called a "Velcro-style" vent. This too is a disk of fabric at the top of the balloon. However, rather than having a set of "vent lines" that can repeatedly open and close the vent, the vent is secured by "hook and loop" fasteners (such as Velcro) and is only opened at the end of the flight. Balloons equipped with a Velcro-style vent typically have a second "maneuvering vent" built into the side (as opposed to the top) of the balloon. Another common type of top design is the "smart vent", which, rather than lowering a fabric disc into the envelope as in the "parachute" type, gathers the fabric together in the center of the opening. This system can theoretically be used for in-flight maneuvering, but is more commonly used only as a rapid-deflation device for use after landing, of particular value in high winds. Other designs, such as the "pop top" and "MultiVent" systems, have also attempted to address the need for rapid deflation on landing, but the parachute top remains popular as an all-around maneuvering and deflation system.
Shape
[edit]
Besides special shapes, possibly for marketing purposes, there are several variations on the traditional "inverted tear drop" shape. The simplest, often used by home builders, is a hemisphere on top of a truncated cone. More sophisticated designs attempt to minimize the circumferential stress on the fabric, with different degrees of success depending on whether they take fabric weight and varying air density into account. This shape may be referred to as "natural".[34] Finally, some specialized balloons are designed to minimize aerodynamic drag (in the vertical direction) to improve flight performance in competitions.[35]
Basket
[edit]
Hot air balloon basket in flightA wicker basket capable of holding 16 passengers
Hot air balloon baskets are commonly made of woven wicker or rattan. These materials have proven to be sufficiently light, strong, and durable for balloon flight. Such baskets are usually rectangular or triangular in shape. They vary in size from just big enough for two people to large enough to carry thirty.[36] Larger baskets often have internal partitions for structural bracing and to compartmentalize the passengers. Small holes may be woven into the side of the basket to act as foot holds for passengers climbing in or out.[37]
Baskets may also be made of aluminium, especially a collapsible aluminium frame with a fabric skin, to reduce weight or increase portability.[38] These may be used by pilots without a ground crew or who are attempting to set altitude, duration, or distance records. Other specialty baskets include the fully enclosed gondolas used for around-the-world attempts[39] and baskets that consist of little more than a seat for the pilot and perhaps one passenger.
Burner
[edit]
A burner directing a flame into the envelopeBurner
The burner unit gasifies liquid propane,[40] mixes it with air, ignites the mixture, and directs the flame and exhaust into the mouth of the envelope. Burners vary in power output; each will generally produce 2 to 3 MW of heat (7 to 10 million BTUs per hour), with double, triple, or quadruple burner configurations installed where more power is needed.[41][42] The pilot actuates a burner by opening a propane valve, known as a blast valve. The valve may be spring-loaded, so that it closes automatically, or it may stay open until closed by the pilot. The burner has a pilot light to ignite the propane and air mixture. The pilot light may be lit by the pilot with an external device, such as a flint striker or a lighter, or with a built-in piezoelectric spark.[43]
Where more than one burner is present, the pilot can use one or more at a time, depending on the desired heat output. Each burner has a metal coil of propane tubing the flame shoots through to preheat the incoming liquid propane. The burner unit may be suspended from the mouth of the envelope or supported rigidly over the basket. The burner unit may be mounted on a gimbal to enable the pilot to aim the flame and avoid overheating the envelope fabric. A burner may have a secondary propane valve that releases propane more slowly and thereby generates a different sound. This is called a whisper burner and is used for flight over livestock to lessen the chance of spooking them. It also generates a more yellow flame and is used for night glows because it lights up the inside of the envelope better than the primary valve.
Fuel tanks
[edit]
Propane fuel tanks are usually cylindrical pressure vessels made from aluminium, stainless steel, or titanium with a valve at one end to feed the burner and to refuel. They may have a fuel gauge and a pressure gauge. Common tank sizes are 38, 57 and 76 litres (10, 15 and 20 US gallons).[29] They may be intended for upright or horizontal use and may be mounted inside or outside the basket.
Stainless steel fuel tanks, wrapped in red insulating covers, mounted vertically, and with fuel gauges, during refueling
The pressure necessary to force the fuel through the line to the burner may be supplied by the vapor pressure of the propane itself, if warm enough, or by the introduction of an inert gas such as nitrogen.[43] Tanks may be preheated with electrical heat tapes to produce sufficient vapor pressure for cold-weather flying.[44] Warmed tanks are usually also wrapped in an insulating blanket to preserve heat during the setup and flight.
Instrumentation
[edit]
A balloon may be outfitted with a variety of instruments to aid the pilot. These commonly include an altimeter, a rate-of-climb (vertical-speed) indicator known as a variometer, envelope (air) temperature, and ambient (air) temperature.[45] A GPS receiver can be useful to indicate ground speed (traditional aircraft air-speed indicators would be useless) and direction.
Combined mass
[edit]
The combined mass of an average system can be calculated as follows:[29]
1.9%
0.7%
5.4%
10.0%
21.2%
78.8%
100.0%
Component
Pounds
Kilograms
Mass fraction
2,800 m3 (100,000 cu ft) envelope
250
113.4
3.3%
5-passenger basket
140
63.5
Double burner
50
22.7
3 76 L (20 US gal) fuel tanks full of propane
3 × 135 = 405
183.7
5 passengers
5 × 150 = 750
340.2
Subtotal
1595
723.5
2,800 m3 (100,000 cu ft) of heated air*
5922
2686.2
Total
(3.76 tons) 7517
3409.7
* Using a density of 0.9486 kg/m3 (0.05922 lb/cu ft) for dry air heated to 99 °C (210 °F).
Theory of operation
[edit]
Generating lift
[edit]
Increasing the air temperature inside the envelope makes it less dense than the surrounding (ambient) air. The balloon floats because of the buoyant force exerted on it. This force is the same force that acts on objects when they are in water and is described by Archimedes' principle. The amount of lift (or buoyancy) provided by a hot air balloon depends primarily upon the difference between the temperature of the air inside the envelope and the temperature of the air outside the envelope. For most envelopes made of nylon fabric, the maximal internal temperature is limited to approximately 120 °C (250 °F).[46]
The melting point of nylon is significantly greater than this maximal operating temperature—about 230 °C (450 °F)—but higher temperatures cause the strength of the nylon fabric to degrade more quickly over time. With a maximal operating temperature of 120 °C (250 °F), balloon envelopes can generally be flown for between 400 and 500 hours before the fabric needs to be replaced. Many balloon pilots operate their envelopes at temperatures significantly less than the maximum to extend envelope-fabric life.
The lift generated by 2,800 m3 (100,000 cu ft) of dry air heated to various temperatures may be calculated as follows:
Air temperature
°C (°F)
Air density
kg/m3 (lb/cu ft)
Air mass
kg (lb)
Lift generated
kg (lb)
20 (68)
1.2041 (0.07517)
3,409.7 (7,517)
0, (0)
99 (210)
0.9486 (0.05922)
2,686.2 (5,922)
723.5 (1,595)
120 (248)
0.8978 (0.05605)
2,542.4 (5,605)
867.3 (1,912)
Thermal image showing temperature variation in a hot air balloon
The density of air at 20 °C (68 °F) is about 1.2 kg/m3 (0.075 lb/cu ft). The total lift for a balloon of 2,800 m3 (100,000 cu ft) heated to 99 °C (210 °F) would be 723.5 kg (1,595 lb). This is just enough to generate neutral buoyancy for the total system mass (not including the heated air trapped in the envelope, of course) stated in the previous section. Liftoff would require a slightly greater temperature, depending on the desired rate of climb. In reality, the air contained in the envelope is not all at the same temperature, as the accompanying thermal image shows, and so these calculations are based on averages.
For typical atmospheric conditions (20 °C or 68 °F), a hot air balloon heated to 99 °C (210 °F) requires about 3.91 m3 of envelope volume to lift 1 kilogram (equivalently, 62.5 cu ft/lb). The precise amount of lift provided depends not only upon the internal temperature mentioned above, but the external temperature, altitude above sea level, and humidity of the air surrounding. On a warm day, a balloon cannot lift as much as on a cool day, because the temperature required for launch will exceed the maximum sustainable for nylon envelope fabric. Also, in the lower atmosphere, the lift provided by a hot air balloon decreases about 3% per 1,000 m (1% per 1,000 ft) of altitude gained.[47]
Types of Hot Air Balloons
[edit]
There are several different types of hot air balloons, all with different means of taking and sustaining flight.
Montgolfier
[edit]
A Virgin hot air balloon flying over Cambridge
Standard hot air balloons are known as Montgolfier balloons and rely solely on the buoyancy of hot air provided by the burner and contained by the envelope.[48] This style of balloon was developed by the Montgolfier brothers and had its first public demonstration on 4 June 1783 with an unmanned flight lasting 10 minutes, followed later that year with manned flights.[49]
Gas
[edit]
1900 Olympics ballooning event at Le Parc d'aerostation, Paris[50]
Instead of using regular air it is also possible to use lighter than air gasses such as Helium or Hydrogen to lift the balloon,[51] though this means it is technically not a hot air balloon, though they did influence the design of hybrid balloons.
Hybrid
[edit]
During 1999, Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones achieved the first non-stop balloon circumnavigation of the globe in Breitling Orbiter 3, a Rozière/Hybrid balloon.Early depiction of hybrid balloon
The 1785 Rozière balloon, is the main type of hybrid balloon, named after its creator, Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier. It has a separate cell for a lighter-than-air gas (typically helium), as well as a cone below for hot air (as is used in a hot air balloon) to heat the helium at night. Hydrogen gas was used in the very early stages of development but was quickly abandoned due to the danger of introducing an open flame near the gas, for example when Rozier attempted to cross the English Channel with his prototype, the fire used to heat the air ignited the Hydrogen and killed both him and his copilot thirty minutes after takeoff.[52] As such, all modern hybrid balloons now use helium as a lifting gas.[53] These balloons are commonly used for high performance records for hot air balloons.
Solar
[edit]
A four-meter-high solar balloon floating over a meadow
Solar balloons are hot air balloons that use just solar energy captured by an envelope. These envelopes are more specialized than for other hot air balloons, trying to maximize the amount of solar energy they collect. This can be accomplished by rotating the envelope during flight or by having the envelope colored black or another dark color.[54] They were pioneered in the 1970s in Europe by Tracy Barnes, Dominic Michaelis, and in the US by Frederick Espoo and Paul Woessher.[55]
Thermal Airship
[edit]
A Thermal airship being prepared for take-off during the "Warsteiner Internationale Montgolfiade" at Warstein (Germany)
A Thermal airship, or blimp, became a reality in the 1960s. Thermal airships were the first steerable air buoyant vehicles.[56] They utilized tail fins and a rudder and contained strictly hot air rather than a mix with hydrogen or helium.[56]
Observation Balloon
[edit]
Observation balloons were deployed as early as the American Civil War and used as reconnaissance towers.[57] The first military funded balloon in America was designed by Thaddeus Lowe on August 2, 1861, for the Union.[57] His design utilized gas from municipal lines to inflate the balloon as he did not have access to a portable generator.[57] Observation balloons during this time were all made using multicolored-silk, wicker baskets, and were vertically oriented and tear shaped.[58] Hydrogen, or illumination gas became the most used inflation fuel by the 20th Century, as it was lighter than air.[58] Observation balloon usage skyrocketed in Britain by the Royal Engineers at the end of the 19th Century, deploying to Sudan in 1885 and to South Africa during the Second Boer War from 1899 to 1902.[59]
Steering
[edit]
Due to the overall design of hot air balloons, controlled and precise steering of hot air balloons is not possible; it is possible for pilots to try to achieve basic directional control by changing altitude and catching different wind streams.[60] Wind in the northern hemisphere tends to turn east due to coriolis effect as the altitude increases.
Landing
[edit]
Landing Single Hot Air Balloon
The most effective way of landing a hot air balloon is to reduce the energy in the envelope, either by turning down the flame in Montgolfier and Hybrid balloons, or more directly by opening a flap in the envelope that will release the air/gas inside.[60]
Safety equipment
[edit]
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To help ensure the safety of pilot and passengers, a hot air balloon may carry several pieces of safety equipment.
Basket
[edit]
To relight the burner if the pilot light goes out and the optional piezo ignition fails, the pilot should have ready access to a means of backup ignition, such as a flint spark lighter. Many systems, especially those that carry passengers, have completely duplicate fuel and burner systems: two fuel tanks, connected to two separate hoses, which feed two distinct burners. This enables a safe landing in the case of a blockage somewhere in one system or if a system must be disabled because of a fuel leak.
A fire extinguisher suitable for extinguishing propane fires is useful. Most balloons carry a 1 or 2 kg AB:E type fire extinguisher.[61]
A handling or drop line is mandatory safety equipment in many countries. This is a rope or webbing of 20–30 meters in length attached to the balloon basket with a quick-release connection at one end. In very calm winds the balloon pilot can throw the handling line from the balloon so that the ground crew can guide the balloon safely away from obstructions on the ground.[62]
For commercial passenger balloons, a pilot restraint harness is mandatory in some countries. This consists of a hip belt and a webbing line that together allow for some movement while preventing the pilot from being ejected from the basket during a hard landing.
Further safety equipment may include a first-aid kit, a fire blanket and a strong rescue knife.
Occupants
[edit]
At a minimum, the pilot should wear leather or flame-retardant fiber (such as nomex) gloves, so that they may shut off a gas valve in the case of a leak, even if there is a flame present; quick action in this regard can turn a potential catastrophe into a mere inconvenience. The pilot should additionally wear flame-resistant clothing covering their arms and legs; either natural fiber, such as cotton, linen, hemp, or wool, or engineered flame-retardant fiber, such as nomex, is acceptable in this capacity. Most engineered fibers (with the exception of rayon, which is also safe to wear) are thermoplastic; many are also hydrocarbons. This makes such fabrics very much unsuitable to wear near high temperatures, since non-flame-retardant thermoplastics will melt onto the wearer, and most hydrocarbons, whether fibrous or not, are suitable to use as fuels. Natural fiber will singe rather than melt or burn readily, and flame-retardant fiber generally has a very high melting point and is intrinsically non-flammable. Many pilots also advise their passengers to wear similar protective clothing that covers their arms and legs, as well as strong shoes or boots that offer good ankle support. Finally, some balloon systems, especially those that hang the burner from the envelope instead of supporting it rigidly from the basket, require the use of helmets by the pilot and passengers.
Ground crew
[edit]
The ground crew should wear gloves whenever there is a possibility of handling ropes or lines. The mass and exposed surface to air movement of a medium-sized balloon is sufficient to cause rope friction burns to the hands of anyone trying to stop or prevent movement. The ground crew should also wear sturdy shoes and at least long pants in case of the need to access a landing or landed balloon in rough or overgrown terrain.
Maintenance and repair
[edit]
Taken from the basket, the reflection of the balloon can be seen in the lake below. Obstacles in the landscape can inhibit smooth retrieval of the balloon upon landing.A commercial balloon ride approaching its landing site at Bird-in-Hand, Pennsylvania
As with aircraft, hot air balloons require regular maintenance to remain airworthy. As aircraft made of fabric and that lack direct horizontal control, hot air balloons may occasionally require repairs to rips or snags. While some operations, such as cleaning and drying, may be performed by the owner or pilot, other operations, such as sewing, must be performed by a qualified repair technician and recorded in the balloon's maintenance log book.
Maintenance
[edit]
To ensure long life and safe operation, the envelope should be kept clean and dry. This prevents mold and mildew from forming on the fabric and abrasion from occurring during packing, transport, and unpacking due to contact with foreign particles. In the event of a landing in a wet (because of precipitation or early morning or late evening dew) or muddy location (farmer's field), the envelope should be cleaned and laid out or hung to dry.
The burner and fuel system must also be kept clean to ensure safe operation on demand. Damaged fuel hoses need to be replaced. Stuck or leaky valves must be repaired or replaced. The wicker basket may require occasional refinishing or repair. The skids on its bottom may require occasional replacement.
Balloons in most parts of the world are maintained in accordance with a fixed manufacturer's maintenance schedule that includes regular (100 flight hours or 12 month) inspections, in addition to maintenance work to correct any damage. In Australia, balloons used for carrying commercial passengers must be inspected and maintained by approved workshops.[63]
Repair
[edit]
In the case of a snag, burn, or rip in the envelope fabric, a patch may be applied or the affected panel completely replaced. Patches may be held in place with glue, tape, stitching, or a combination of these techniques. Replacing an entire panel requires the stitching around the old panel to be removed, and a new panel to be sewn in with the appropriate technique, thread, and stitch pattern.
Licensing
[edit]
Depending on the size of the balloon, location, and intended use, hot air balloons and their pilots need to comply with a variety of regulations.
Balloons
[edit]
Top of balloon during inflation. Crew is securing parachute vent.
As with other aircraft in the US, balloons must be registered (have an N-number), have an airworthiness certificate, and pass annual inspections. Balloons below a certain size (empty weight of less than 155 pounds or 70 kg including envelope, basket, burners and empty fuel tanks) can be used as an ultralight aircraft.
Pilots
[edit]
In Australia
[edit]
In Australia, private balloon pilots are managed by the Australian Ballooning Federation[64] and typically become members of regional hot air ballooning clubs. Commercial operations carrying fare paying passengers or charging for promotional flights must operate under an Air Operators Certificate from the Australian Civil Aviation and Safety Authority (CASA) with a nominated Chief Pilot. Pilots must have different degrees of experience before they are allowed to progress to larger balloons. Hot air balloons must be registered aircraft with CASA and are subject to regular airworthiness checks by authorised personnel.[65]
In the UK
[edit]
In the UK, the person in command must hold a valid Private Pilot's Licence issued by the Civil Aviation Authority specifically for ballooning; this is known as the PPL(B). There are two types of commercial balloon licences: CPL(B) Restricted and CPL(B) (Full). The CPL(B) Restricted is required if the pilot is undertaking work for a sponsor or being paid by an external agent to operate a balloon. The pilot can fly a sponsored balloon with everything paid for with a PPL unless asked to attend any event. Then a CPL(B) Restricted is required. The CPL(B) is required if the pilot is flying passengers for money. The balloon then needs a transport category C of A (certificate of air worthiness). If the pilot is only flying sponsor's guests and not charging money for flying other passengers, then the pilot is exempted from holding an AOC (air operator's certificate) though a copy of it is required.[clarification needed] For passenger flying the balloon also requires a maintenance log.
In the United States
[edit]
In the United States, a pilot of a hot air balloon must have a pilot certificate from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), carrying the rating of "Lighter-than-air free balloon", and unless the pilot is also qualified to fly gas balloons, will also carry this limitation: "Limited to hot-air balloons with airborne heater". A pilot does not need a license to fly an ultralight aircraft, but training is highly advised, and some hot-air balloons meet the criteria.
To carry paying passengers for hire (and attend some balloon festivals), a pilot must have a commercial pilot certificate. Commercial hot air balloon pilots may also act as hot air balloon flight instructors. While most balloon pilots fly for the pure joy of floating through the air, many are able to make a living as a professional balloon pilot. Some professional pilots fly commercial passenger sightseeing flights, while others fly corporate advertising balloons.[66]
Accidents and incidents
[edit]
Further information: History of ballooning § Notable accidents
1989 Alice Springs hot air balloon crash: On 13 August 1989, two hot air balloons collided at Alice Springs, Northern Territory, Australia, causing one to fall, killing all 13 people on board.
2011 Somerset hot air balloon crash: On 1 January 2011, a hot air balloon attempting a high-altitude flight crashed at Pratten's Bowls Club in Westfield, Somerset, near Bath, England, killing both people on board.
2012 Carterton hot air balloon crash: On 7 January 2012, a hot air balloon collided with a power line, caught fire and crashed at Carterton, North Island, New Zealand, killing all 11 people on board.
2012 Ljubljana Marshes hot air balloon crash: On 23 August 2012, a storm blew a hot air balloon to the ground, causing it to catch fire on impact near Ljubljana, Slovenia. The crash killed 6 of the 32 people on board, and injured the other 26.
2013 Luxor hot air balloon crash: On 26 February 2013, a hot air balloon carrying foreign tourists ignited and crashed near the ancient city of Luxor, Egypt, killing 19 of the 21 people on board, making it the deadliest balloon accident in history.[67]
2016 Lockhart hot air balloon crash: On 30 July 2016, a hot air balloon carrying 16 people caught fire and crashed near Lockhart, Texas. There were no survivors.
2021 Albuquerque hot air balloon crash: On 26 June 2021, a hot air balloon carrying five people made contact with a power line and crashed in Albuquerque, New Mexico. All five people on board died as a result of the accident.
On 14 January 2024, a hot air balloon crashed outside Eloy, Arizona,[68] killing the three passengers and pilot. Eight skydivers had exited the balloon immediately prior to the incident.
2025 Santa Catarina hot air balloon crash: On 21 June 2025, a hot air balloon crashed after catching fire in Praia Grande, Santa Catarina, Brazil, killing 8 of the 21 people on board.[69][70]
Manufacturers
[edit]
New 2017 Cameron hot air balloon in flight
The largest manufacturer of hot air balloons is Cameron Balloons of Bristol, England, which also owns Lindstrand Balloons of Oswestry, England. Cameron Balloons, Lindstrand Balloons and another English balloon manufacturing company Thunder and Colt (since acquired by Cameron) have been innovators and developers of special shaped balloons. These hot-air balloons use the same principle of lift as conventional inverted teardrop-shaped balloons, but often sections of the special balloon envelope shape do not contribute to the balloon's ability to stay aloft.
The second largest manufacturer of hot air balloons is Ultramagic company, based in Spain, which produces from 80 to 120 balloons per year. Ultramagic can produce very large balloons, such as the N-500 that accommodates as many as 27 persons in the basket, and has also produced many balloons with special shapes, as well as cold-air inflatables.
One of the three largest companies in the world is Kubicek Balloons. From its factory in Brno, Czechia the company ships its products worldwide. Produces from 100 to 115 balloons per year. Kubicek company also focus on special shape balloons, FAA/EASA type certified and are delivered with a Standard Airworthiness Certificate.
One of the last Aerostar International, Inc. RX8 balloons
In the USA Aerostar International, Inc. of Sioux Falls, South Dakota was North America's largest balloon manufacturer and a close second in world manufacturing before ceasing to build balloons in January 2007. The oldest U.S. certified manufacturer is now Adams Balloons out of Albuquerque, New Mexico. Firefly Balloons, formerly The Balloon Works, is a manufacturer of hot air balloons in Statesville, North Carolina. Another manufacturer is Head Balloons, Inc. of Helen, Georgia.
The major manufacturers in Canada are Sundance Balloons and Fantasy Sky Promotions. Other manufacturers include Kavanagh Balloons of Australia, Schroeder Fire Balloons of Germany, Kubicek Balloons of the Czech Republic, and LLopis Balloons of France.
See also
[edit]
Aerostat
Barrage balloon
Blimp
Cluster ballooning
Espionage balloon
Gas balloon
High-altitude balloon
History of military ballooning
Hot air balloon festival
Hot air ballooning
Observation balloon
Research balloon
Skyhook balloon
References
[edit]
^
Tom D. Crouch (2008). Lighter Than Air. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-9127-4.
^ ab"U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission: Early Balloon Flight in Europe". Archived from the original on 2008-06-02. Retrieved 2008-06-04.
^Deng, Yinke (2005). Ancient Chinese Inventions. Beijing: China Intercontinental Press. ISBN 978-7508508375., cited in Joel Serrão, Dicionário de História de Portugal, Vol III. Porto: Livraria Figueirinhas, 1981, 184–185.
^Joseph Needham (1965). Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering; rpr. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
^Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo. "Cartas Consultas e Mais Obras de Alexandre de Gusmão" (páginas do manuscrito 201–209).
^De Gusmão, Bartolomeu. "Reproduction fac-similé d'un dessin à la plume de sa description et de la pétition adressée au Jean V. (de Portugal) en langue latine et en écriture contemporaine (1709) retrouvés récemment dans les archives du Vatican du célèbre aéronef de Bartholomeu Lourenco de Gusmão "l'homme volant" portugais, né au Brésil (1685–1724) précurseur des navigateurs aériens et premier inventeur des aérostats. 1917".
^"Innovative Projects; The Extraordinary Nazca Prehistoric Balloon". Archived from the original on 2011-07-14. Retrieved 2017-07-24.
^"Scientist and Aviator Julian Nott Dies After a Bizarre Accident". LTA-Flight Magazine. 29 March 2019.
^Browne, Malcolm W. (18 November 1986). "Ballonist Has High Hopes But No Illusions". The New York Times. Retrieved 21 June 2020.
^Glenday, Craig (2013). Guinness world records 2014. Guinness World Records Limited. ISBN 978-1908843159.
^Tom D. Crouch (2009). Lighter Than Air.
^"Start-Flying: History of Balloon Flying". www.start-flying.com. Retrieved 2007-12-28.
^"Lighter than air: The Montgolfier Brothers". Retrieved 2007-12-28.
^"National Air and Space Museum: Pioneers of Flight gallery". Archived from the original on 2008-04-06. Retrieved 2007-12-28.
^"Fleurus (Municipality, Province of Hainaut, Belgium)". CRW Flags Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-21.
^Hevesi, Dennis (2007-06-04). "Ed Yost, 87, Father of Modern Hot-Air Ballooning, Dies". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-06-04.
^"Dr. Vijaypat Singhania enters the Guinness World Records" (PDF). Archived from the original on 2008-06-24. Retrieved 2008-06-22.
^Fedor Konyukhov (17 September 2016). "Experience: I flew solo around the world in a hot-air balloon". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 September 2016. Article by Konyukhov describing the experience.
^ ab"Balloon World Records". Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. Archived from the original on 8 September 2016. Retrieved 17 September 2016. Steve Fossett and Fedor Konyukhov, both sub-class AM-15.
^"Fédération Aéronautique Internationale". Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. 20 June 2019. Retrieved 20 June 2019.
^"Balloon Propane Tanks". Pilot Outlook. Archived from the original on 2011-06-10. Retrieved 2010-06-05. Propane tanks used in hot air balloons are mainly constructed of either aluminum or stainless steel. Most aluminum tanks are vertical 10-gallon cylinders (DOT 4E240), built primarily for forklift trucks.
^"Propane Cylinders". Propane 101. Retrieved 2010-06-05. Cylinders in liquid service are commonly found on forklifts.
^"Head Balloons". Archived from the original on 2007-01-10. Retrieved 2007-01-12.
^"Machine Style 56500". Arch Sewing Company. 2003. Retrieved 2010-03-06. 2 Needle Double Lap Seaming Also called Felled Seam
^Daniel Nachbar; Paul Stumpf (2008). "Construction basics". XLTA. Retrieved 2010-03-06. all of the seams are the "French fell" type
^ abAnnette Petrusso. "How Things Are Made: Hot Air Balloon, The Manufacturing Process". Advameg. Retrieved 2010-03-06. The double lap seam features two rows of parallel stitching along the folded over fabric seam. A few manufactures use a flat seam.
^Jon Radowski (2010). "How To Sew A Hot Air Balloon!". Apex Balloons. Retrieved 2010-03-06. perfect French Fell hot air balloon seam
^"Nitrogen vs. Heat Tapes". Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2007-11-13.
^"Flytec 3040 Digital Wireless Instrument Package". Archived from the original on 2012-03-21. Retrieved 2006-12-26.
^"Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Type certificate data sheet no. A33CE" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-06-24. Retrieved 2008-06-16.
^"How to Calculate the Weight of Air and Model Hot Air Balloon Lift". Retrieved 2008-01-01.
^"NASA: Montgolfiere balloon missions for Mars and Titan" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-06-24. Retrieved 2008-06-04.
^Scientific American Inventions and Discoveries, p. 177, Rodney P. Carlisle, John Wiley and Sons, 2004, ISBN 0-471-24410-4.
^Ministere du Commerce de L'Industrie des Postes et des Telegraphes (1902). Exposition Universelle Internationale de 1900 a Paris. Concours Internationaux D'Exercices Physiques et de Sports. Rapports Publies Sous La Direction de M. D. Merillon. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale. pp. 178, 250–275.
^"Gas vs Hot". balloonfiesta.com. Retrieved 2023-11-17.
^"History Of Ballooning | National Balloon Museum". Retrieved 2023-11-17.
^"Hot Air FAQ: What regulations are in Place?". Archived from the original on 2010-01-10. Retrieved 2009-06-22.
^"Professional Balloon Pilots". Archived from the original on 2016-10-24. Retrieved 2007-05-03.
^Mohyeldin, Ayman; Gubash, Charlene; Newland, John (26 February 2013). "Foreign tourists killed in Egyptian balloon crash". World News on NBCNews.com. Archived from the original on 1 March 2013. Retrieved 26 February 2013.
^"Balloon accident in Eloy, Arozona".
^Pina, Rute; Lukiv, Jaroslav (21 June 2025). "At least eight dead in hot air balloon accident in Brazil". BBC.
^Mendonca, Duarte; Brennan, Eve (21 June 2025). "At least 8 dead after hot air balloon accident in southern Brazil". CNN. Retrieved 21 June 2025.
Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
External links
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hot air balloon.
Library resources about hot air balloons
Online books
Resources in your library
Resources in other libraries
General ballooning sites
[edit]
Hot Air Balloon Web Links
v
t
e
Accidents and incidents involving hot air balloons
Accidents
Alice Springs, Australia (August 1989)
Carterton, New Zealand (January 2012)
Ljubljana, Slovenia (August 2012)
Luxor, Egypt (February 2013)
Lockhart, United States (July 2016)
Santa Catarina, Brazil (June 2025)
Related lists
List of ballooning accidents
Hot air ballooning in Luxor
Authority control databases
International
GND
National
United States
France
BnF data
Israel
Other
Yale LUX
About Cappadocia
Historical region in Central Anatolia, Turkey
For other uses, see Cappadocia (disambiguation) and Cappadocian (disambiguation).
Place in Katpatuka
Cappadocia
Ancient region of Central Anatolia Region, Turkey
Clockwise from top: Ortahisar Castle, View of Uçhisar Castle, Mount Erciyes, Rose Valley, Ihlara Valley, Göreme Open Air Museum, Aerial view over Cappadocia
Cappadocia among the classical regions of Anatolia (Asia Minor)
Persian satrapy
Katpatuka
Roman province
Cappadocia
Göreme National Park and the Rock Sites of Cappadocia
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Interactive map of Göreme National Park and the Rock Sites of Cappadocia
Includes
Göreme National Park, Kaymakli Underground City, Derinkuyu underground city
Criteria
Cultural: i, iii, v; Natural: vii
Reference
357
Inscription
1985 (9th Session)
Area
9,883.81 ha
Cappadocia (/kæpəˈdoʊʃəˌ-ˈdoʊkiə/; Turkish: Kapadokya, from Greek: Καππαδοκία) is a historical region in Central Anatolia region, Turkey. It is largely in the provinces of Nevşehir, Kayseri, Aksaray, Kırşehir, Sivas and Niğde. Today, the touristic Cappadocia Region is located in Nevşehir province.
According to Herodotus, in the time of the Ionian Revolt (499 BC), the Cappadocians were reported as occupying a region from the Taurus Mountains to the vicinity of the Euxine (Black Sea).[1] Cappadocia, in this sense, was bounded in the south by the chain of mountains that separate it from Cilicia, to the east by the upper Euphrates, to the north by the Pontus, and to the west by Lycaonia and eastern Galatia.[2]
The name, traditionally used in Christian sources throughout history, continues in use as an international tourism concept to define a region of exceptional natural wonders, in particular characterized by fairy chimneys,[3] in addition to its religious heritage of being a centre of early Christian learning, evidenced by hundreds of churches and monasteries (such as those of Göreme and Ihlara), as well as underground cities that were dug to offer protection during periods of persecution.[4][5]
Etymology
[edit]
The facade of an ancient church called Açık Saray, literally meaning "Open Palace", carved into the valley walls in Gülşehir, Cappadocia.
The earliest record of the name of Cappadocia (/kæpəˈdoʊʃəˌ-ˈdoʊkiə/; Turkish: Kapadokya; Ancient Greek: Καππαδοκία, romanized: Kappadokía, Classical Syriac: ܩܦܘܕܩܝܐ, romanized: Kəp̄uḏoqyā, from Old Persian: 𐎣𐎫𐎱𐎬𐎢𐎣Katpatuka; Hittite: 𒅗𒋫𒁉𒁕, romanized: Katapeda; Armenian: Կապադովկիա,, romanized: Kapadovkia) dates from the late sixth century BC, when it appears in the trilingual inscriptions of two early Achaemenid emperors, Darius the Great and Xerxes I, as one of the countries (Old Persian dahyu-). In these lists of countries, the Old Persian name is Katpatuka. It was proposed that Kat-patuka came from the Luwian language, meaning "Low Country".[6]
Subsequent research suggests that the adverb katta meaning 'down, below' is exclusively Hittite, while its Luwian equivalent is zanta.[7] Therefore, the recent modification of this proposal operates with the Hittite katta peda-, literally "place below" as a starting point for the development of the toponym Cappadocia.[8]
The earlier derivation from Iranian Hu-apa-dahyu 'Land of good horses' can hardly be reconciled with the phonetic shape of Kat-patuka. Several other etymologies have also been offered in the past.[9]
Herodotus wrote that the name of the Cappadocians was applied to them by the Persians, while they were termed by the Greeks "White Syrians" (Leucosyri),[10] who were most probably descendants of the Hittites.[11] One of the Cappadocian tribes he mentions is the Moschoi, associated by Flavius Josephus with the biblical figure Meshech, son of Japheth: "and the Mosocheni were founded by Mosoch; now they are Cappadocians". AotJ I:6.[citation needed]
A fresco of Christ Pantocrator on the ceiling of Karanlık Kilise Churches of Göreme.
Cappadocia appears in the biblical account given in the book of Acts 2:9. The Cappadocians were named as one group (among "Parthians, Medes and Elamites; residents of Mesopotamia, Judea and Cappadocia, Pontus and Asia")[12] hearing the Gospel account from Galileans in their own language on the day of Pentecost shortly after the resurrection of Jesus Christ. Acts 2:5 states "Now there were staying in Jerusalem God-fearing Jews from every nation under heaven," seeming to suggest that some of the Cappadocians were Jews, or part of the diaspora of Jews present in Jerusalem at the time.[12]
The region is mentioned in the Jewish Mishnah, in Ketubot 13:11, and in several places in the Talmud, including Yevamot 121a, Hullin 47b.[13]
Under the later kings of the Persian Empire, the Cappadocians were divided into two satrapies, or governments, with one comprising the central and inland portion, to which the name of Cappadocia continued to be applied by Greek geographers, while the other was called Pontus. This division had already come about before the time of Xenophon. As after the fall of the Persian government the two provinces continued to be separate, the distinction was perpetuated, and the name Cappadocia came to be restricted to the inland province (sometimes called Great Cappadocia), which alone will be the focus of this article.[14]
The kingdom of Cappadocia still existed in the time of Strabo (c. 64 BC – c. AD 24) as a nominally independent state. Cilicia was the name given to the district in which Caesarea, the capital of the whole country, was situated. The only two cities of Cappadocia considered by Strabo to deserve that appellation were Caesarea (originally known as Mazaca) and Tyana, not far from the foot of the Taurus.[15]
Geography and climate
[edit]
Fairy chimneys in Uçhisar, Cappadocia.
Cappadocia lies in central Anatolia, in the heartland of what is now Turkey. The relief consists of a high plateau over 1,000 m in altitude that is pierced by volcanic peaks, with Mount Erciyes (ancient Argaeus) near Kayseri (ancient Caesarea) being the tallest at 3,916 m. The boundaries of historical Cappadocia are vague, particularly towards the west.[16]
To the south, the Taurus Mountains form the boundary with Cilicia and separate Cappadocia from the Mediterranean Sea. To the west, Cappadocia is bounded by the historical regions of Lycaonia to the southwest, and Galatia to the northwest. Due to its inland location and high altitude, Cappadocia has a markedly continental climate, with hot dry summers and cold snowy winters.[17] Rainfall is sparse and the region is largely semi-arid.[citation needed]
Cappadocia contained the source of the Sarus and Pyramus rivers, and the middle course of the Halys river, and the tributary of the Euphrates, later called Tokhma Su. As no one of these rivers was navigable or served to fertilize the lands along its course, none has much importance in the history of the province.[15]
Geology
[edit]
Ignimbrites of Miocene age are present within the area. The distinctive landscape of Cappadocia was formed through the erosion of thick volcanic deposits created by ancient eruptions of Mount Erciyes, Mount Hasan, and Göllüdağ. Over millions of years, wind and water erosion shaped these soft volcanic rocks into the region’s characteristic fairy chimneys and rock formations.
Prominent rock formations such as Ortahisar and Uçhisar are composed of harder volcanic rock layers, which were more resistant to erosion than the surrounding softer deposits. As a result, these formations remained elevated over time and were later adapted for the construction of rock-cut castles and settlements.
IUGS geological heritage site
[edit]
In respect of the 'voluminous eruption deposits in a fluvio-lacustrine sequence with 'fairy-chimney' development produced by uplift and erosion', the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS) included 'The Miocene Cappadocian ignimbrites sequence' in its assemblage of 100 'geological heritage sites' around the world in a listing published in October 2022. The organisation defines an IUGS Geological Heritage Site as 'a key place with geological elements and/or processes of international scientific relevance, used as a reference, and/or with a substantial contribution to the development of geological sciences through history.'[18]
History
[edit]
Ancient history
[edit]
See also: Cappadocia (satrapy) and List of rulers of Cappadocia
Achaemenid Cappadocia
A Cappadocian soldier of the Achaemenid army, circa 470 BC. Xerxes I tomb relief.
The location of Achaemenid Cappadocia.[19]
Cappadocia was known as Hatti in the late Bronze Age, and was the homeland of the Hittite power centred at Hattusa. After the fall of the Hittite Empire, with the decline of the Syro-Cappadocians (Mushki) after their defeat by the Lydian king Croesus in the 6th century BC, Cappadocia was ruled by a sort of feudal aristocracy, dwelling in strong castles and keeping the peasants in a servile condition, which later made them apt to foreign slavery. It was included in the third Persian satrapy in the division established by Darius but continued to be governed by rulers of its own, none apparently supreme over the whole country and all more or less tributaries of the Great King.[15][20]
Kingdom of Cappadocia
[edit]
Main article: Kingdom of Cappadocia
After ending the Persian Empire, Alexander the Great tried to rule the area through one of his military commanders. But Ariarathes, previously satrap of the region, declared himself king of the Cappadocians. As Ariarathes I (332–322 BC), he was a successful ruler, and he extended the borders of the Cappadocian Kingdom as far as to the Black Sea. The kingdom of Cappadocia lived in peace until the death of Alexander.[15]
The previous empire was then divided into many parts, and Cappadocia fell to Eumenes. His claims were made good in 322 BC by the regent Perdiccas, who crucified Ariarathes; but in the dissensions which brought about Eumenes's death, Ariarathes II, the adopted son of Ariarathes I, recovered his inheritance and left it to a line of successors, who mostly bore the name of the founder of the dynasty.[15]
Persian colonists in the Cappadocian kingdom, cut off from their co-religionists in Iran proper, continued to practice Zoroastrianism. Strabo, observing them in the first century BC, records (XV.3.15) that these "fire kindlers" possessed many "holy places of the Persian Gods", as well as fire temples.[21]
Strabo relates, were "noteworthy enclosures; and in their midst there is an altar, on which there is a large quantity of ashes and where the magi keep the fire ever burning."[21] According to Strabo, who wrote during the time of Augustus (r. 27 BC – AD 14), almost three hundred years after the fall of the Achaemenid Persian Empire, there remained only traces of Persians in western Asia Minor; however, he considered Cappadocia "almost a living part of Persia".[22]
Under Ariarathes IV, Cappadocia came into relations with Rome, first as a foe espousing the cause of Antiochus the Great, then as an ally against Perseus of Macedon. The kings henceforward threw in their lot with the Republic as against the Seleucids, to whom they had been from time to time tributary. Ariarathes V marched with the Roman proconsul Publius Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus against Aristonicus, a claimant to the throne of Pergamon, and their forces were annihilated (130 BC). The imbroglio which followed his death ultimately led to interference by the rising power of Pontus and the intrigues and wars which ended in the failure of the dynasty.[15][23]
Roman and early Christian period
[edit]
Main article: Cappadocia (Roman province)
The ancient city of Tyana, CappadociaKing Orophernes of Cappadocia.
The Cappadocians, supported by Rome against Mithridates VI of Pontus, elected a native lord, Ariobarzanes, to succeed (93 BC). In the same year, Armenian troops under Tigranes the Great entered Cappadocia, dethroned king Ariobarzanes and crowned Gordios as the new client-king of Cappadocia, creating a buffer zone against the encroaching Romans. When Rome deposed the Pontic and Armenian kings, the rule of Ariobarzanes was established (63 BC).[24]
In Caesar's civil war, Cappadocia was first for Pompey, then for Caesar, then for Antony, and finally, Octavian. The Ariobarzanes dynasty came to an end, a Cappadocian nobleman Archelaus was given the throne, by favour first of Antony and then of Octavian, and maintained tributary independence until AD 17, when the emperor Tiberius, whom he had angered, summoned him to Rome and reduced Cappadocia to a Roman province.[24]
In 70 AD, Vespasian joined Armenia Minor to Cappadocia, and made the combined province a frontier bulwark. It remained, under various provincial redistributions, part of the Eastern Empire for centuries.[25] In 314, Cappadocia was the largest province of the Roman Empire, and was part of the Diocese of Pontus.[26] In 371, the western part of the Cappadocia province was divided into Cappadocia Prima, with its capital at Caesarea (modern-day Kayseri); and Cappadocia Secunda, with its capital at Tyana.[26]
By 386, the region to the east of Caesarea had become part of Armenia Secunda, while the northeast had become part of Armenia Prima.[26] Cappadocia largely consisted of major estates, owned by the Roman emperors or wealthy local families.[26] The Cappadocian provinces became more important in the latter part of the 4th century, as the Romans were involved with the Sasanian Empire over control of Mesopotamia and "Armenia beyond the Euphrates".[26]
Cappadocia, now well into the Roman era, still retained a significant Iranian character; Stephen Mitchell notes that "many inhabitants of Cappadocia were of Persian descent and Iranian fire worship is attested as late as 465"[26] and the area also contained a sizeable Armenian population since antiquity.[27] For most of the Byzantine era it remained relatively undisturbed by the conflicts in the area with the Sasanian Empire, but the Persian Wars of the 610s and 620s placed Cappadocia on the frontline for the first time since the first century.[28]
The exact date of arrival of Christianity in uncertain, but latest from the third century it was firmly established in society and the Church was fully developed.[29] The Cappadocian Fathers of the 4th century were integral to much of early Christian philosophy. It produced, among other people, John of Cappadocia, Patriarch of Constantinople from 517 to 520, and Macrina, an early champion of women's monasticism.[30] The region suffered famine in 368 described as "the most severe ever remembered" by Gregory of Nazianzus:
An early Christian hermitage in Cappadocia
The city was in distress and there was no source of assistance [...] The hardest part of all such distress is the insensibility and insatiability of those who possess supplies [...] Such are the buyers and sellers of corn [...] by his word and advice [Basil's] open the stores of those who possessed them, and so, according to the Scripture, dealt food to the hungry and satisfied the poor with bread [...] He gathered together the victims of the famine [...] and obtaining contributions of all sorts of food which can relieve famine, set before them basins of soup and such meat as was found preserved among us, on which the poor live [...] Such was our young furnisher of corn, and second Joseph [...] [But unlike Joseph, Basil's] services were gratuitous and his succour of the famine gained no profit, having only one object, to win kindly feelings by kindly treatment, and to gain by his rations of corn the heavenly blessings.[31]
This is similar to another account by Gregory of Nyssa that Basil "ungrudgingly spent upon the poor his patrimony even before he was a priest, and most of all in the time of the famine, during which [Basil] was a ruler of the Church, though still a priest in the rank of presbyters; and afterwards did not hoard even what remained to him".[31] Basil also famously constructed near Caeserea the Basileias, a vast complex with hospices for sick, churches, quarters for travellers and facilities for doctors and nurses.[32]
Byzantine periods
[edit]
A ceiling fresco in Daniel Pantonassa Church, Ihlara Valley.
The Arrival of Muslim Arab armies in the mid-seventh century resulted in the breakdown of civil and military order of the Eastern provinces and a colossal displacement of population.[28] Cappdocia became a border region of the Byzantine Empire, frequently raided by the Caliphate. From the 7th century, Cappadocia was divided between the Anatolic and Armeniac themes.[28] The frontier zone between Caeserea (Kayseri) and Melitene became a no-man's land, in which the akritai and ghazis fought each other and which is remembered in the epic Digenes Akritas.[33] The warfare, consisting of the yearly razzias as well as major campaigns took a heavy toll on the cities and villages, especially on the favourite Arab lines of march.[34]
Between the 7th and 10th century, Cappadocia was a border region of the Byzantine Empire
Cappadocia contains several underground cities (see Kaymaklı Underground City), many of which were dug by Christians to provide protection during the Arab raids and periods of persecution.[5] The underground cities have vast defence networks of traps throughout their many levels. These traps are very creative, including such devices as large round stones to block doors and holes in the ceiling through which the defenders may drop spears.
Throughout the Dark Ages to the Middle Byzantine period, Armenians immigrated in significant numbers into Cappadocia, partly due to imperial policies.[27] The Arab historian Abu Al Faraj asserts the following about Armenian settlers in Sebasteia, during the 10th century:
They [the Armenians] were assigned the Sebaste (now Siwas) district of Cappadocia. Their number grew to such an extent that they became valuable auxiliaries to the imperial armies. They were employed to garrison the fortresses reconquered from the Arabs (probably Membedj, Dolouk, etc.). They formed excellent infantry for the armies of Basileus in all wars, constantly fighting with courage and success alongside the Romans.[35]
As a result of the Byzantine military campaigns and the Seljuk invasion of Armenia, the Armenians spread into Cappadocia and eastward from Cilicia into the mountainous areas of northern Syria and Mesopotamia, and the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia was eventually formed. This immigration was increased further after the decline of the local imperial power and the establishment of the Crusader States following the Fourth Crusade. To the crusaders, Cappadocia was terra Hermeniorum, the land of the Armenians, due to the large number of Armenians settled there.[36]
In the 9th–11th centuries, the region comprised the themes of Charsianon with its capital at the eponymous city and Cappadocia, which had first its capital in Nyssa and then at Koron, after Nyssa had been sacked by the Arabs in 838.[37] By the mid-tenth century, the region was again reorganised as much of the no-men's land was resettled, especially around the area of Larissa, Tzamandos, and Lykandos.[37] After the Byzantine reconquests in the East finished, Cappadocia was again removed from the frontier and an increasingly demilitarised region in the eleventh century.[38]
Frescos inside Tokali Kilise, "Church of the Buckle".
Turkish Cappadocia
[edit]
Following the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, Turkish clans under the leadership of the Seljuks began settling in Anatolia. With the rise of Turkish power in Anatolia, Cappadocia slowly became a tributary to the Turkish states that were established to the east and to the west; some of the native population converted to Islam[39] with the rest forming the remaining Cappadocian Greek population.
By the end of the early 12th century, Anatolian Seljuks had established their sole dominance over the region. With the decline and the fall of the Konya-based Seljuks in the second half of the 13th century, they were gradually replaced by successive Turkic ruled states: the Karaman-based Beylik of Karaman and then the Ottoman Empire. Cappadocia remained part of the Ottoman Empire until 1922, when it became part of the modern state of Turkey.[citation needed]
In the early 18th century, a fundamental change occurred in between when a new urban center, Nevşehir, was founded by a grand vizier who was a native of the locality (Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha), to serve as regional capital, a role the city continues to assume to this day. In the meantime many former Cappadocians had shifted to a Turkish dialect (written in Greek alphabet, Karamanlıca).
Where the Greek language was maintained (Sille, villages near Kayseri, Pharasa town and other nearby villages), it became heavily influenced by the surrounding Turkish. This dialect of Eastern Roman Greek is known as Cappadocian Greek. Following the foundation of Turkey in 1922, those who still identified with this pre-Islamic culture of Cappadocia were required to leave, so this language is now only spoken by a handful of their descendants, most now located in modern Greece.[citation needed]
Church
[edit]
Cappadocia Church (Turkish: Kapadokya Kilisesi) is a Christian church and local congregation in Avanos, a town in Nevşehir Province in Cappadocia.[40][41][42][43][44] The church holds Turkish-language worship services within a Protestant theological framework, according to its own statements.[45] Several online travel and business directories list it as one of the places of worship and visitation in Avanos.[42][43][44]
Modern tourism
[edit]
See also: Rock-cut architecture of Cappadocia
Cappadocia is famous for traditional cave hotels.
The area is a popular tourist destination, as it has many areas with unique geological, historic, cultural, and religious features. Touristic Cappadocia includes four cities: Nevşehir, Kayseri, Aksaray and Niğde.[citation needed]
The region is located southwest of the major city Kayseri, which has airline and railway service to Ankara and Istanbul and other cities.[citation needed]
The most important towns and destinations in Cappadocia are Ortahisar, Ürgüp, Göreme, Love Valley, Ihlara Valley, Selime, Güzelyurt, Uçhisar, Avanos and Zelve.[citation needed] Cappadocia is served by Nevşehir Kapadokya Airport (NAV), which functions as the region’s primary airport. According to the Republic of Türkiye Directorate General of State Airports Authority (DHMİ), recent infrastructure and capacity expansion projects have increased the airport’s annual passenger capacity to nearly 2 million, a level considered sufficient for the region’s current tourism demand.[46]
Sedimentary rocks formed in lakes and streams and ignimbrite deposits that erupted from ancient volcanoes approximately nine to three million years ago, during the late Miocene to Pliocene epochs, underlie the Cappadocia region. The rocks of Cappadocia near Göreme eroded into hundreds of spectacular pillars and minaret-like forms. People of the villages at the heart of the Cappadocia region carved out houses, churches and monasteries from the soft rocks of volcanic deposits.[47]
Göreme became a Christian monastic centre in 300–1200 AD. The Yusuf Koç, Ortahane, Durmus Kadir and Bezirhane churches in Göreme, and houses and churches carved into rocks in the Uzundere, Bağıldere and Zemi Valleys, all evidence Cappadocia as a centre of early Christian learning and are thus a place of pilgrimage. The Göreme Open Air Museum is the most visited site of the Christian monastic communities in Cappadocia (see Churches of Göreme and Churches of the Ihlara Valley) and is one of the most famous sites in central Turkey. The complex contains more than 30 carved-from-rock churches and chapels, some having superb frescoes inside, dating from the ninth century to the eleventh century.[48]
The three main castles in Cappadocia are Uçhisar Castle, Ortahisar Castle, and Ürgüp Kadıkalesi (Temenni Tepe). Among the most visited underground cities are Derinkuyu, Kaymakli, Gaziemir and Ozkonak. The best historic mansions and cave houses for tourist stays are in Ürgüp, Göreme, Güzelyurt and Uçhisar.[citation needed]
Hot-air ballooning is especially popular in Cappadocia, particularly around Göreme, offering sunrise flights over the region's fairy chimneys and valleys.[49]
Trekking is practised in Ihlara Valley, Monastery Valley (Güzelyurt), Ürgüp and Göreme.[citation needed]
Hot air balloons
Mesothelioma
[edit]
In 1975, a study of three small villages in central Cappadocia—Tuzköy, Karain and Sarıhıdır—found that mesothelioma was causing 50% of all deaths. Initially, this was attributed to erionite, a zeolite mineral with similar properties to asbestos, but detailed epidemiological investigation demonstrated that the substance causes the disease mostly in families with a genetic predisposition to mineral fiber carcinogenesis. The studies are being extended to other parts of the region.[50][51]
Media
[edit]
A video showing all the different landscapes and terrain of Göreme and Cappadocia
The area was featured in several films due to its topography. The 1983 Italian/French/Turkish film Yor, the Hunter from the Future and 1985's Land of Doom were filmed in Cappadocia. The region was used for the 1989 science fiction film Slipstream to depict a cult of wind worshippers. In 2010 and early 2011, the film Ghost Rider: Spirit of Vengeance was filmed in the Cappadocia region.[52]
Autechre's second album, Amber, features a photo of this region's fairy mountains as the cover art,[53] being their only album whose cover isn't computer-generated.[citation needed]
Cappadocia's winter landscapes and broad panoramas are prominent in the 2014 film Winter Sleep (Turkish: Kış Uykusu), directed by Nuri Bilge Ceylan, which won the Palme d'Or at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival.[54]
The 2011 video game Assassin's Creed Revelations features the city as a major location, where the protagonist Ezio Auditore travels to in a bid to stop the Byzantine Templars and their operations, kill Manuel Palaiologos and recover the final Masyaf key.
Sports
[edit]
Since 2012, a multiday track running ultramarathon of desert concept, called Runfire Cappadocia Ultramarathon, is held annually in July. The race tours 244 km (152 mi) in six days through several places across Cappadocia reaching out to Lake Tuz.[55] In September 2016, for the first time, the Turkish Presidential Bike Tour took place in Cappadocia, with more than 300 cyclists from around the globe participating.[56]
Gallery
[edit]
Aerial view of the town Göreme.
Aerial view of Uçhisar
General view of Ürgüp
Avanos
Göreme Historical National Park
The 'Three beauties' fairy chimneys, thought to be named after to Hera, Athena and Aphrodite, located in Ürgüp
Pigeon Valley, formerly known as Vasil Potamus
Aktepe "White Hill" near Göreme and the Rock Sites of Cappadocia (UNESCO World Heritage Site)
Balloons taking off at sunrise
Mt. Erciyes (3916 m), the highest mountain in Cappadocia
View towards Güzelyurt Monastery Valley and Church Mosque
Cappadocia traditional houses
Decorated tree with Uçhisar Castle in the background.
Horses roaming in Cappadocia
rock-cut architecture in Monks Valley, Paşabağ
A rock-cut church in Cappadocia
Derinkuyu underground city
Kaymakli underground city
Cappadocian Greeks in traditional clothing
Gümüşler Monastery Courtyard in Niğde
Çanlı Kilise, meaning "Bell Church" in Aksaray Province.
Kizil Kilise, meaning "Red Church" in Güzelyurt
Doors of Mustafapaşa
Architectural style of Avanos
Ortahisar castle
See also
[edit]
Amaseia
Ancient regions of Anatolia
Cappadocian Fathers
Cappadocia under the Achaemenids
Kandovan, Iran
Gondrani, Pakistan
Khndzoresk, Armenia
Syunik (historical province)
List of colossal sculpture in situ
List of traditional Greek place names
Mokissos
Tourism in Turkey
References
[edit]
^[Herodotus, The Histories, Book 5, Chapter 49]
^ Van Dam, R. Kingdom of Snow: Roman rule and Greek culture in Cappadocia. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002, p.13. [1]
^
Demir, Ömer (1997). Cappadocia: Cradle of History. 16: Azim Matbaacılık. p. 15. History, nature and mankind have created many important wonders in Cappadocia: 1- The unique natural landscape, include fairy chimneys, rock formations and valleys. 2- The rock-hewn churches decorated with frescoes from the 6th-12th C of scenes from the Bible, especially the lives of Jesus, Mother Mary and saints. 3- The underground settlements many consider to by the 8th wonder of the ancient world.cite book: CS1 maint: location (link)
^Demir, Ömer (1997). Cappadocia: Cradle of History. 16: Azim Matbaacılık. pp. 11–15, 70.cite book: CS1 maint: location (link)
^ abDemir, Ömer (1997). Cappadocia: Cradle of History. 16: Azim Matbaacılık. p. 70. However, the longest working and living period was the century when underground cities in Cappadocia were dug by Christians who could not bear Arabic and Sassanid threat after Capadocia was conquered … It is clearly visible in some underground cities in Cappadocia that the rooms located near the entrance are profoundly different from those that are inside. Saratli and Özlüce underground cities are given as an example regarding these differences.cite book: CS1 maint: location (link)
^Coindoz M. Archeologia / Préhistoire et archéologie, n°241, 1988, pp. 48–59
^Petra Goedegebuure, "The Luwian Adverbs zanta 'down' and *ānni 'with, for, against'", Acts of the VIIIth International Congress of Hittitology, A. Süel (ed.), Ankara 2008, pp. 299–319.
^Yakubovich, Ilya (2014). Kozuh, M. (ed.). "From Lower Land to Cappadocia". Extraction and Control: Studies in Honor of Matthew W. Stolper. Chicago: Oriental Institute: 347–52.
^See R. Schmitt, "Kappadoker", in Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie, vol. 5 (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1980), p. 399, and L. Summerer, "Amisos – eine Griechische Polis im Land der Leukosyrer", in: M. Faudot et al. (eds.), Pont-Euxin et polis. Actes du Xe Symposium de Vani (2005), 129–66 [135] According to an older theory (W. Ruge, "Kappadokia", in A.F. Pauly – G. Wissowa, Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft, vol. 10 (Stuttgart: Alfred Druckenmüller, 1919), col. 1911), the name derives from Old Persian and means either "land of the Ducha/Tucha" or "land of the beautiful horses". It has also been proposed that Katpatuka is a Persianized form of the Hittite name for Cilicia, Kizzuwatna, or that it is otherwise of Hittite or Luwian origin (by Tischler and Del Monte, mentioned in Schmitt (1980)). According to A. Room, Placenames of the World (London: MacFarland and Company, 1997), the name is a combination of Assyrian katpa "side" (cf. Heb katef) and a chief or ancestor's name, Tuka.
^Bunbury & Hogarth 1911, p. 286.
^Janse, Mark (2009). "The resurrection of Cappadocian (Asia Minor Greek)". ΑΩ International.
^Van Dam, R. Kingdom of Snow: Roman rule and Greek culture in Cappadocia. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002, p.14. [2]
^Van Dam, R. Kingdom of Snow: Roman rule and Greek culture in Cappadocia. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002, p.14. [3]
^"The First 100 IUGS Geological Heritage Sites" (PDF). IUGS International Commission on Geoheritage. IUGS. Retrieved 13 November 2022.
^Map of the Achaemenid Empire
^Evelpidou, Niki; Figueiredo, Tomás; Mauro, Francesco; Tecim, Vahap; Vassilopoulos, Andreas (2010-01-19). Natural Heritage from East to West: Case studies from 6 EU countries. Springer. ISBN 9783642015779.
^ abMary Boyce. Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices Psychology Press, 2001 ISBN 978-0415239028 p. 85
^Raditsa 1983, p. 107.
^The coinage of Cappadocian kings was quite extensive and produced by highest standards of the time. See Asia Minor Coins – regal Cappadocian coins
^ abBunbury & Hogarth 1911, pp. 287–288.
^Bunbury & Hogarth 1911, p. 288.
^ abcdefMitchell 2018, p. 290.
^ abCooper & Decker 2012, p. 43.
^ abcCooper & Decker 2012, p. 21.
^Cooper & Decker 2012, p. 139.
^Cooper & Decker 2012, p. 184.
^ abThe Hungry are Dying: Beggars and Bishops in Roman Cappadocia by Susan R. Holman
^Cooper & Decker 2012, pp. 30, 161.
^Cooper & Decker 2012, pp. 24–25, 43.
^Cooper & Decker 2012, p. 23.
^Schlumberger, Gustave Léon (1890). Un empereur byzantin au dixième siècle, Nicéphore Phocas. Paris: Firmin-Didot. pp. 250–251.
^MacEvitt, Christopher (2008). The Crusades and the Christian World of the East: Rough Tolerance. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780812240504.
^ abCooper & Decker 2012, p. 22.
^Cooper & Decker 2012, p. 31.
^Vryonis, Speros (1971). The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-52-001597-5.
^"Kapadokya Kilisesi resmî sitesi". Kapadokya Kilisesi (in Turkish). Retrieved 7 November 2025.
^"İletişim". Kapadokya Kilisesi (in Turkish). Retrieved 7 November 2025.
^ ab"Kapadokya Kilisesi". Trip.com. Retrieved 7 November 2025.
^ ab"Kapadokya Kilisesi". Yeni Firma (in Turkish). Retrieved 7 November 2025.
^ ab"Kapadokya Kilisesi". Mindtrip. Retrieved 7 November 2025.
^"Hakkımızda". Kapadokya Kilisesi (in Turkish). Retrieved 7 November 2025.
^Republic of Türkiye Directorate General of State Airports Authority (DHMİ), Nevşehir Kapadokya Airport annual passenger statistics and capacity expansion reports.
^Demir, Ömer (1997). Cappadocia: Cradle of History. 16: Azim Matbaacılık. p. 19. The Christians taking shelter in the valleys of Göreme because of Arab raids, named this place 'gor emi' meaning 'you cannot see this place'. The name was changed to Korama and then to Göreme. With its very interesting fairy chimneys and the rock-cut churches, the valley of Avcılar, 17 km from Nevşehir and 6 cm from Ürgüp, attracts travellers' attention. St Paul considered Göreme to be more suitable for the training of missionaries. There are about 400 churches in the vicinity of Göreme which was one of the most important centres of Christianity between the 6th and the 9th C, including churches found in and around Zelve, Mustafapaşa, Avcılar, Uçhisar, Ortahisar and Çavuşin.cite book: CS1 maint: location (link)
^Demir, Ömer (1997). Cappadocia: Cradle of History. 16: Azim Matbaacılık. p. 19. The Christians taking shelter in the valleys of Göreme because of Arab raids, named this place 'gor emi' meaning 'you cannot see this place'. The name was changed to Korama and then to Göreme. With its very interesting fairy chimneys and the rock-cut churches, the valley of Avcılar, 17 km from Nevşehir and 6 cm from Ürgüp, attracts travellers' attention. St Paul considered Göreme to be more suitable for the training of missionaries. There are about 400 churches in the vicinity of Göreme which was one of the most important centres of Christianity between the 6th and the 9th C, including churches found in and around Zelve, Mustafapaşa, Avcılar, Uçhisar, Ortahisar and Çavuşin.cite book: CS1 maint: location (link)
^"Hot air ballooning in Cappadocia". Lonely Planet. Retrieved 2025-09-27.
^Dogan, Umran (2003). "Mesothelioma in Cappadocian villages". Indoor and Built Environment. 12 (6). Ankara: Sage: 367–75. Bibcode:2003InBEn..12..367D. doi:10.1177/1420326X03039065. ISSN 1420-326X. S2CID 110334356.
^Carbone, Michelle; et al. (2007). "A mesothelioma epidemic in Cappadocia: scientific developments and unexpected social outcomes". Nature Reviews Cancer. 7 (2): 147–54. doi:10.1038/nrc2068. ISSN 1474-175X. PMID 17251920. S2CID 9440201.
^"Cappadocia « the Spirits of Vengeance". Archived from the original on 2014-08-26. Retrieved 2012-06-18.
^Palladev, George (9 February 2018). "Autechre — Amber. Short story behind the artwork". 12edit. Retrieved 15 May 2019.
^Corliss, Richard. "Winter Sleep: Can a Three-Hour-Plus Prize-Winner Be Just Pretty Good?". Time. Retrieved 2017-08-15.
^"Elite Athletes to run at The Runfire Cappadocia". Istanbul Convention & Visitors Bureau. July 2013. Archived from the original on 2013-08-05. Retrieved 2013-11-28.
^"VİDEO | Bisiklet festivali başladı - TRT Spor - Türkiye'nin güncel spor haber kaynağı". Archived from the original on 2016-12-20. Retrieved 2016-12-14.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Bunbury, Edward Herbert; Hogarth, David George (1911). "Cappadocia". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 286–288.
Sources
[edit]
Cooper, Eric; Decker, Michael J. (24 July 2012). Life and Society in Byzantine Cappadocia. Springer. ISBN 978-1-137-02964-5. Retrieved 6 February 2025.
Mitchell, Stephen (2018). "Cappadocia". In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0192562463.
Raditsa, Leo (1983). "Iranians in Asia Minor". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3 (1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1139054942.
Weiskopf, Michael (1990). "Cappadocia". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 7–8. pp. 780–86.
Ene Drăghici-Vasilescu, Elena, book "Byzantine and Medieval Cappadocia', Scientific Research Publishing |2024|978-1649979582|and Ene Drăghici-Vasilescu, Elena, "Shrines and Schools in Byzantine Cappadocia", Journal of Early Christian History, volume 9, Issue 1, 2019, pp. 1–29
Late Roman and early Byzantine provinces (4th–7th centuries AD)
History
As found in the Notitia Dignitatum. Provincial administration reformed and dioceses established by Diocletian, c. 293. Permanent praetorian prefectures established after the death of Constantine I. Empire permanently partitioned after 395. Exarchates of Ravenna and Africa established after 584. After massive territorial losses in the 7th century, the remaining provinces were superseded by the theme system in c. 640–660, although in Asia Minor and parts of Greece they survived under the themes until the early 9th century.
Western Roman Empire (395–476)
Praetorian prefecture
of Gaul
Diocese of Gaul
Alpes Poeninae et Graiae
Belgica I
Belgica II
Germania I
Germania II
Lugdunensis I
Lugdunensis II
Lugdunensis III
Lugdunensis IV
Maxima Sequanorum
Diocese of Vienne1
Alpes Maritimae
Aquitanica I
Aquitanica II
Narbonensis I
Narbonensis II
Novempopulania
Viennensis
Diocese of Spain
Baetica
Balearica
Carthaginensis
Gallaecia
Lusitania
Mauretania Tingitana
Tarraconensis
Diocese of the Britains
Britannia I
Britannia II
Flavia Caesariensis
Maxima Caesariensis
Valentia (?)
Praetorian prefecture
of Italy
Diocese of Suburbicarian Italy
Apulia et Calabria
Campania
Corsica
Lucania et Bruttium
Picenum Suburbicarium
Samnium
Sardinia
Sicilia
Tuscia et Umbria
Valeria
Diocese of Annonarian Italy
Alpes Cottiae
Flaminia et Picenum Annonarium
Liguria et Aemilia
Raetia I
Raetia II
Venetia et Histria
Diocese of Africa2
Africa proconsularis (Zeugitana)
Byzacena
Mauretania Caesariensis
Mauretania Sitifensis
Numidia (divided as Cirtensis and Militiana during the Tetrarchy)
Tripolitania (Roman province)
Eastern Roman Empire (395–c. 640)
Praetorian prefecture
of Illyricum
Diocese of Pannonia3
Dalmatia
Noricum mediterraneum
Noricum ripense
Pannonia I
Pannonia II
Savia
Valeria ripensis
Diocese of Dacia
Dacia Mediterranea
Dacia Ripensis
Dardania
Moesia I
Praevalitana
Diocese of Macedonia
Achaea
Creta
Epirus Nova
Epirus Vetus
Macedonia Prima
Macedonia II Salutaris
Thessalia
Praetorian prefecture
of the East
Diocese of Thrace5
Europa
Haemimontus
Moesia II4
Rhodope
Scythia4
Thracia
Diocese of Asia5
Asia
Caria4
Hellespontus
Islands4
Lycaonia (370)
Lycia
Lydia
Pamphylia
Pisidia
Phrygia Pacatiana
Phrygia Salutaris
Diocese of Pontus5
Armenia I5
Armenia II5
Armenia Maior5
Armenian Satrapies5
Armenia III (536)
Armenia IV (536)
Bithynia
Cappadocia I5
Cappadocia II5
Galatia I5
Galatia II Salutaris5
Helenopontus5
Honorias5
Paphlagonia5
Pontus Polemoniacus5
Diocese of the East5
Arabia
Cilicia I
Cilicia II
Cyprus4
Euphratensis
Isauria
Mesopotamia
Osroene
Palaestina
Prima
Secunda
Salutaris
Phoenice I
Phoenice II Libanensis
Syria I
Syria II Salutaris
Theodorias (528)
Diocese of Egypt5
Aegyptus I
Aegyptus II
Arcadia
Augustamnica I
Augustamnica II
Libya Superior
Libya Inferior
Thebais Superior
Thebais Inferior
Other territories
Taurica
Quaestura exercitus (536)
Spania (552)
1 Later the Septem Provinciae
2 Re-established after reconquest by the Eastern Empire in 534 as the separate Prefecture of Africa
3 Later the Diocese of Illyricum
4 Placed under the Quaestura exercitus in 536
5 Affected (i.e. boundaries modified, abolished or renamed) by Justinian I's administrative reorganization in 534–536
v
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World Heritage Sites in Turkey
Aegean
Aphrodisias
Ephesus
Hierapolis / Pamukkale
Pergamon
Sardis and the Lydian Tumuli of Bin Tepe
Black Sea
Hattusa
Safranbolu
Central Anatolia
Çatalhöyük
Divriği Great Mosque and Hospital
Gordion
Göreme National Park and Cappadocia
East Anatolia
Ani
Arslantepe Mound
Marmara
Bursa and Cumalıkızık
Historic Areas of Istanbul
Selimiye Mosque and its Social Complex
Troy
Mediterranean
Xanthos / Letoon
Southeastern Anatolia
Diyarbakır Fortress and Hevsel Gardens
Göbekli Tepe
Mount Nemrut
Multiple regions
Wooden Hypostyle Mosques of Medieval Anatolia
Turkey portal
Category
External links
[edit]
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