Hot air balloon Dubai hotel transfer included

Hot air balloon Dubai hotel transfer included

Hot air balloon Dubai wide basket

Hot air balloon Dubai hotel transfer included-sometimes a practical detail carries the romance of an entire journey.

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In a city that dazzles with skyscrapers and sea, the most unforgettable perspective is often found far beyond its glass and steel, in the lavender hush of the desert just before dawn. A hot air balloon experience isn't merely a ride; it's a ritual that begins in the quiet dark when the world is still deciding what kind of day to be. And when hotel pickup is part of the package, the entire ritual unfolds with effortless grace.


The beauty of that small phrase-hotel transfer included-is that it solves the one challenge nobody wants at four in the morning: logistics. Dubai is a city of distances and districts, a place where a pre-dawn taxi can feel like a gamble and self-driving to the desert is out of the question for visitors. Instead, a professional driver arrives while the city still yawns, and you slip into the back seat with your eyes half-closed, passing palm-framed boulevards and the silent outlines of Burj Khalifa, watching the neon give way to the faintest press of light on the horizon. The air is cooler than you expect. The streets are empty. Anticipation gathers in the quiet.


At the launch site, a desert breeze carries the scent of sand and sage. Warm cups of tea or coffee sit in gloved hands as the balloon's silk envelope unfurls like a sleeping creature waking. Crews move with confident economy. The burner roars once, then again, flame surging into the open mouth of the balloon, and the fabric blooms into color and shape. A short safety briefing follows-steady competence in every word-reminding you that ballooning is as much about weather and patience as it is about wonder. Pilots read the morning like a map: wind direction, thermals, the clean, pale hue of the east.


Then, without drama, the ground drifts away. There is no lurch, no drop, only an unlikely levitation. You float. The hush is astonishing. Desert dunes stretch like an endless scroll of gold, their edges pinking as the sun edges up. Far in the distance, the Hajar Mountains wear a crown of light. Below, you trace the shy, looping signatures of animals-perhaps an oryx or a gazelle-etched in the sand. The burners breathe now and then, a warm punctuation in the sentence of silence. The world expands and softens. Time loses its edges.


From the air, Dubai reorganizes itself. The city's towers become delicate silhouettes, islands in the far-off haze. You realize that scale is a trick of perspective; from here, everything is held lightly-desert, city, sky-balanced in the faith that air will do what air has always done: hold what it can, release what it must. You look at the people around you, strangers a moment ago united now by a shared astonishment, cameras forgotten at their sides. This is what you came for. Not adrenaline, exactly, but a serene kind of awe.


The landing is gentle-a soft kiss to earth-or a playful skip or two, depending on the wind. You laugh; everyone does. The basket relaxes back into sand. There is applause for the pilot, for the crew, and maybe for the morning itself. On many flights, a light breakfast waits at a desert camp: citrus and dates, fresh bread, Arabic coffee, stories. Sometimes there's a brief ceremony with certificates or a chance to pose for photos with the balloon. Hot air balloon Dubai weather dependent No one hurries you. The rush of departure is behind you; the rush of the day hasn't found you yet.


And then the grace note: the return ride to your hotel. It seems a small thing, but it shapes the memory. You lean your head against the window, sun now fully climbed, desert bright as a bell. You scroll through photos-tiny people in a big basket against a universe of sand-and let drowsiness take you. By the time the car slips back into the city's elegant lattice of roads, you're not calculating directions or bargaining with drivers. You step out in front of your hotel, the lobby's cool air meeting your sun-warmed face, and you realize you've been given the most precious luxury of travel: a seamless arc from dream to reality and back again.


There are practicalities to consider, of course, and part of the comfort of a “hotel transfer included” option is that many of them are quietly handled for you. Ballooning in Dubai is weather-dependent; on rare mornings, flights are delayed or rescheduled for safety. Dress in layers and closed-toe shoes-the desert can be chilly before sunrise and warm soon after. A cap is useful; when the burners breathe, you'll feel their heat. Most operators welcome children above a certain age or height; pregnant travelers or those with certain medical conditions are generally advised against flying. Choose a licensed provider with experienced pilots; in the UAE, credible operators align with the national aviation authority's safety standards. These details may not be romantic, but they are the reason the romance is possible.


Hot air balloon Dubai wide basket

Is it worth setting an alarm at an hour you'd rather pretend doesn't exist? If the answer were only the view, it would still be yes. But the truth is that a hot air balloon in Dubai-with hotel transfer included-offers something bigger than a postcard moment. It orchestrates ease around wonder. It acknowledges the way fatigue or uncertainty can blunt the edges of joy and removes them from the equation. It invites you to show up as you are-sleepy, hopeful, curious-and meets you with competence and care.


Later, when you're by the pool or planning the rest of your day, you'll notice a quiet in yourself that you didn't have before. Not the emptiness of being drained, but the spaciousness of having seen something immense and kind. A desert at sunrise. Hot air balloon Dubai pickup service . A city resetting its glitter. A balloon that taught you how to float. And the simplest kindness of a door-to-door journey that began with a knock in the pre-dawn dark and ended with a memory you can hold for years. In a world that often confuses luxury with noise, this is the rarest kind: the kind that whispers.

 

Hot air balloon in flight
Novelty hot air balloons resembling anthropomorphized bees
Novelty hot air balloon resembling the Abbey of Saint Gall

A hot air balloon is a lighter-than-air aircraft consisting of a bag, called an envelope, which contains heated air. Suspended beneath is a gondola or wicker basket (in some long-distance or high-altitude balloons, a capsule), which carries passengers and a source of heat, in most cases an open flame caused by burning liquid propane. The heated air inside the envelope makes it buoyant, since it has a lower density than the colder air outside the envelope. As with all aircraft, hot air balloons cannot fly beyond the atmosphere. The envelope does not have to be sealed at the bottom, since the air inside the envelope is at about the same pressure as the surrounding air. In modern sport balloons the envelope is generally made from nylon fabric, and the inlet of the balloon (closest to the burner flame) is made from a fire-resistant material such as Nomex. Modern balloons have been made in many shapes, such as rocket ships and the shapes of various commercial products, though the traditional shape is used for most non-commercial and many commercial applications.

The hot air balloon is the first successful human-carrying flight technology. The first untethered manned hot air balloon flight in the world was performed in Paris, France, by Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier and François Laurent d'Arlandes on November 21, 1783,[1] in a balloon created by the Montgolfier brothers.[2] Hot air balloons that can be propelled through the air rather than simply drifting with the wind are known as thermal airships.

History

[edit]

Premodern and unmanned balloons

[edit]
A sky lantern

A precursor of the hot air balloon was the sky lantern (simplified Chinese: 孔明灯; traditional Chinese: 孔明燈). Zhuge Liang of the Shu Han kingdom, during the Three Kingdoms era (220–280 CE), used these airborne lanterns for military signaling.[3] The Mongolian army studied Kongming lanterns from China and used them in the Battle of Legnica during the Mongol invasion of Poland in the 13th century.[4] This is the first time ballooning was known in the western world.

In the 18th century the Portuguese Jesuit priest Bartolomeu de Gusmão in colonial Brazil envisioned an aerial apparatus named Passarola, which was the predecessor of the hot air balloon. The Passarola was intended to serve as an air vessel in order to facilitate communication and as a strategical device.[5] In 1709 John V of Portugal decided to fund Bartolomeu de Gusmão's project following a petition made by the Jesuit priest,[6] and an unmanned demonstration was performed at Casa da Índia in the presence of John V and the queen, Maria Anna of Austria, with the Italian cardinal Michelangelo Conti, two members of the Portuguese Royal Academy of History, one Portuguese diplomat and one chronicler serving as witnesses. This event would bring some European attention to this event and this project. A later article dated on October 20, 1786, by the London Daily Universal Register would state that the inventor was able to raise himself by the use of his prototype. Also in 1709, the Portuguese Jesuit wrote Manifesto summário para os que ignoram poderse navegar pelo elemento do ar (Short Manifesto for those who are unaware that is possible to sail through the element air); he also left designs for a manned air vessel.

In the 1970s, balloonist Julian Nott hypothesized that the Nazca Lines geoglyphs' creation two millennia ago could have been guided by Nazca leaders in a balloon, possibly the earliest hot air balloon flights in human history.[7] To support this theory, in 1975 he designed and piloted the Nazca Prehistoric Balloon, claiming to have used only methods and materials available to the Pre-Inca Peruvians 1,000 years ago.[8][9]

First manned flight

[edit]
A model of the Montgolfier brothers' balloon at the London Science Museum

The French brothers Joseph-Michel and Jacques-Étienne Montgolfier developed a hot-air balloon in Annonay, Ardèche, France, and demonstrated it publicly on September 19, 1783, making an unmanned flight lasting 10 minutes. After experimenting with unmanned balloons and flights with animals, the first balloon flight with humans aboard, a tethered flight, performed on or around October 15, 1783, by Jean-Francois Pilatre de Rozier, who made at least one tethered flight from the yard of the Reveillon workshop in the Faubourg Saint-Antoine. Later that same day, Pilatre de Rozier became the second human to ascend into the air, reaching an altitude of 26 m (85 ft), the length of the tether.[10][11] The first free flight with human passengers was made a few weeks later, on November 21, 1783.[2] King Louis XVI had originally decreed that condemned criminals would be the first pilots, but de Rozier, along with Marquis François d'Arlandes, petitioned successfully for the honor.[12][13][14] The first military use of a hot air balloon happened in 1794 during the battle of Fleurus, when the French used the balloon l'Entreprenant for observation.[15]

Modern balloons

[edit]
A hot air balloon over the city of Helsinki in September 2009
Hot air balloons, Cappadocia sunrise
A pair of Hopper balloons
Bristol International Balloon Fiesta

Modern hot air balloons, with an onboard heat source, were developed by Ed Yost and Jim Winker, beginning during the 1950s; their work resulted in his a first successful flight on October 22, 1960.[16] The first modern hot air balloon to be made in the United Kingdom (UK) was the Bristol Belle, built in 1967. Presently, hot air balloons are used primarily for recreation.

Records

[edit]

Altitude

[edit]

On November 26, 2005 Vijaypat Singhania set the world altitude record for highest hot air balloon flight, reaching 21,027 m (68,986 ft). He took off from downtown Mumbai, India, and landed 240 km (150 mi) south in Panchale.[17]

The previous record of 19,811 m (64,997 ft) had been set by Per Lindstrand on June 6, 1988, in Plano, Texas.

Speed

[edit]

On January 15, 1991, Per Lindstrand (born in Sweden, but resident in the UK) and Richard Branson of the UK flew 7,671.91 km (4,767.10 mi) from Japan to Northern Canada in the “Virgin Pacific Flyer”. With a volume of 74,000 cubic meters (2.6 million cubic feet), the balloon envelope was the largest ever built for a hot air craft. Designed to fly in the trans-oceanic jet streams, the Pacific Flyer recorded the fastest ground speed for a manned balloon at 394 km/h (245 mph).

Length

[edit]

The longest duration record was set by Swiss psychiatrist Bertrand Piccard (Auguste Piccard's grandson) and Briton Brian Jones, flying in the Breitling Orbiter 3. It was the first nonstop trip around the world by balloon. The balloon left Château-d'Oex, Switzerland, on March 1, 1999, and landed at 1:02 a.m. on March 21 in the Egyptian desert 500 km (300 mi) south of Cairo. The two men exceeded distance, endurance, and time records, traveling 19 days, 21 hours, and 55 minutes.

Briefest trip around the world

[edit]

Steve Fossett, flying solo, exceeded the record for briefest time traveling around the world on 3 July 2002 on his sixth attempt,[18] in 320 h 33 min.[19] Fedor Konyukhov flew solo round the world on his first attempt in a hybrid hot air/helium balloon from 11 to 23 July 2016[20] for a round-the world time of 268 h 20 min.[19]

Construction

[edit]

A hot air balloon for manned flight uses a single-layered, fabric gas bag (lifting "envelope"), with an opening at the bottom called the mouth or throat. Attached to the envelope is a basket, or gondola, for carrying the passengers. Mounted above the basket and centered in the mouth is the "burner", which injects a flame into the envelope, heating the air within. The heater or burner is fueled by propane, a liquefied gas stored in pressure vessels, similar to high-pressure forklift cylinders.[21][22]

Envelope

[edit]

Modern hot air balloons are usually made of materials such as ripstop nylon or dacron (a polyester).[23]

A hot air balloon is inflated partially with cold air from a gasoline-powered fan, before the propane burners are used for final inflation.

During the manufacturing process, the material is cut into panels and sewn together, along with structural load tapes that carry the weight of the gondola or basket. The individual sections, which extend from the throat to the crown (top) of the envelope, are known as gores or gore sections. Envelopes can have as few as 4 gores or as many as 24 or more.[24]

Envelopes often have a crown ring at their very top. This is a hoop of smooth metal, usually aluminium, and approximately 30 cm (1 ft) in diameter. Vertical load tapes from the envelope are attached to the crown ring.

At the bottom of the envelope the vertical load tapes are sewn into loops that are connected to cables (one cable per load tape). These cables, often referred to as flying wires, are connected to the basket by carabiners.

Seams

[edit]

The most common technique for sewing panels together is called the French felled, French fell, or double lap seam.[25][26][27][28] The two pieces of fabric are folded over on each other at their common edge, possibly with a load tape as well, and sewn together with two rows of parallel stitching. Other methods include a flat lap seam, in which the two pieces of fabric are held together simply with two rows of parallel stitching, and a zigzag, where parallel zigzag stitching holds a double lap of fabric.[27]

Coatings

[edit]
Hot air balloon safari in Maasai Mara

The fabric (or at least part of it, the top 1/3, for example) may be coated with a sealer, such as silicone or polyurethane, to make it impermeable to air.[29] It is often the degradation of this coating and the corresponding loss of impermeability that ends the effective life of an envelope, not weakening of the fabric itself. Heat, moisture, and mechanical wear-and-tear during set-up and pack-up are the primary causes of degradation. Once an envelope becomes too porous to fly, it may be retired and discarded or perhaps used as a "rag bag": cold-inflated and opened for children to run through. Products for recoating the fabric are becoming available commercially.[30]

Sizes and capacity

[edit]

A range of envelope sizes is available. The smallest, one-person, basket-less balloons (called "Hoppers" or "Cloudhoppers") have as little as 600 m3 (21,000 cu ft) of envelope volume;[31] for a perfect sphere the radius would be around 5 m (16 ft). At the other end of the scale, balloons used by commercial sightseeing operations may be able to carry well over two dozen people, with envelope volumes of up to 17,000 m3 (600,000 cu ft).[31] The most-used size is about 2,800 m3 (99,000 cu ft), allowing to carry 3 to 5 people.

Vents

[edit]
The parachute vent at the top of an envelope, as seen from below through the mouth

The top of the balloon usually has a vent of some sort, enabling the pilot to release hot air to slow an ascent, start a descent, or increase the rate of descent, usually for landing. Some hot air balloons have turning vents, which are side vents that, when opened, cause the balloon to rotate. Such vents are particularly useful for balloons with rectangular baskets, to facilitate aligning the wider side of the basket for landing.[32]

The most common type of top vent is a disk-shaped flap of fabric called a parachute vent, invented by Tracy Barnes.[33] The fabric is connected around its edge to a set of "vent lines" that converge in the center. (The arrangement of fabric and lines roughly resembles a parachute—thus the name.) These "vent lines" are themselves connected to a control line that runs to the basket. A parachute vent is opened by pulling on the control line. Once the control line is released, the pressure of the remaining hot air pushes the vent fabric back into place. A parachute vent can be opened briefly while in flight to initiate a rapid descent. (Slower descents are initiated by allowing the air in the balloon to cool naturally.) The vent is pulled open completely to collapse the balloon after landing.

An older, and presently less commonly used, style of top vent is called a "Velcro-style" vent. This too is a disk of fabric at the top of the balloon. However, rather than having a set of "vent lines" that can repeatedly open and close the vent, the vent is secured by "hook and loop" fasteners (such as Velcro) and is only opened at the end of the flight. Balloons equipped with a Velcro-style vent typically have a second "maneuvering vent" built into the side (as opposed to the top) of the balloon. Another common type of top design is the "smart vent", which, rather than lowering a fabric disc into the envelope as in the "parachute" type, gathers the fabric together in the center of the opening. This system can theoretically be used for in-flight maneuvering, but is more commonly used only as a rapid-deflation device for use after landing, of particular value in high winds. Other designs, such as the "pop top" and "MultiVent" systems, have also attempted to address the need for rapid deflation on landing, but the parachute top remains popular as an all-around maneuvering and deflation system.

Shape

[edit]

Besides special shapes, possibly for marketing purposes, there are several variations on the traditional "inverted tear drop" shape. The simplest, often used by home builders, is a hemisphere on top of a truncated cone. More sophisticated designs attempt to minimize the circumferential stress on the fabric, with different degrees of success depending on whether they take fabric weight and varying air density into account. This shape may be referred to as "natural".[34] Finally, some specialized balloons are designed to minimize aerodynamic drag (in the vertical direction) to improve flight performance in competitions.[35]

Basket

[edit]
Hot air balloon basket in flight
A wicker basket capable of holding 16 passengers

Hot air balloon baskets are commonly made of woven wicker or rattan. These materials have proven to be sufficiently light, strong, and durable for balloon flight. Such baskets are usually rectangular or triangular in shape. They vary in size from just big enough for two people to large enough to carry thirty.[36] Larger baskets often have internal partitions for structural bracing and to compartmentalize the passengers. Small holes may be woven into the side of the basket to act as foot holds for passengers climbing in or out.[37]

Baskets may also be made of aluminium, especially a collapsible aluminium frame with a fabric skin, to reduce weight or increase portability.[38] These may be used by pilots without a ground crew or who are attempting to set altitude, duration, or distance records. Other specialty baskets include the fully enclosed gondolas used for around-the-world attempts[39] and baskets that consist of little more than a seat for the pilot and perhaps one passenger.

Burner

[edit]
A burner directing a flame into the envelope
Burner

The burner unit gasifies liquid propane,[40] mixes it with air, ignites the mixture, and directs the flame and exhaust into the mouth of the envelope. Burners vary in power output; each will generally produce 2 to 3 MW of heat (7 to 10 million BTUs per hour), with double, triple, or quadruple burner configurations installed where more power is needed.[41][42] The pilot actuates a burner by opening a propane valve, known as a blast valve. The valve may be spring-loaded, so that it closes automatically, or it may stay open until closed by the pilot. The burner has a pilot light to ignite the propane and air mixture. The pilot light may be lit by the pilot with an external device, such as a flint striker or a lighter, or with a built-in piezoelectric spark.[43]

Where more than one burner is present, the pilot can use one or more at a time, depending on the desired heat output. Each burner has a metal coil of propane tubing the flame shoots through to preheat the incoming liquid propane. The burner unit may be suspended from the mouth of the envelope or supported rigidly over the basket. The burner unit may be mounted on a gimbal to enable the pilot to aim the flame and avoid overheating the envelope fabric. A burner may have a secondary propane valve that releases propane more slowly and thereby generates a different sound. This is called a whisper burner and is used for flight over livestock to lessen the chance of spooking them. It also generates a more yellow flame and is used for night glows because it lights up the inside of the envelope better than the primary valve.

Fuel tanks

[edit]

Propane fuel tanks are usually cylindrical pressure vessels made from aluminium, stainless steel, or titanium with a valve at one end to feed the burner and to refuel. They may have a fuel gauge and a pressure gauge. Common tank sizes are 38, 57 and 76 litres (10, 15 and 20 US gallons).[29] They may be intended for upright or horizontal use and may be mounted inside or outside the basket.

Stainless steel fuel tanks, wrapped in red insulating covers, mounted vertically, and with fuel gauges, during refueling

The pressure necessary to force the fuel through the line to the burner may be supplied by the vapor pressure of the propane itself, if warm enough, or by the introduction of an inert gas such as nitrogen.[43] Tanks may be preheated with electrical heat tapes to produce sufficient vapor pressure for cold-weather flying.[44] Warmed tanks are usually also wrapped in an insulating blanket to preserve heat during the setup and flight.

Instrumentation

[edit]

A balloon may be outfitted with a variety of instruments to aid the pilot. These commonly include an altimeter, a rate-of-climb (vertical-speed) indicator known as a variometer, envelope (air) temperature, and ambient (air) temperature.[45] A GPS receiver can be useful to indicate ground speed (traditional aircraft air-speed indicators would be useless) and direction.

Combined mass

[edit]

The combined mass of an average system can be calculated as follows:[29]

 
1.9%
 
0.7%
 
5.4%
 
10.0%
 
21.2%
 
78.8%
 
100.0%
Component Pounds Kilograms Mass fraction
2,800 m3 (100,000 cu ft) envelope 250 113.4
 
3.3%
5-passenger basket 140 63.5  
Double burner 50 22.7  
3 76 L (20 US gal) fuel tanks full of propane 3 × 135 = 405 183.7  
5 passengers 5 × 150 = 750 340.2  
Subtotal 1595 723.5  
2,800 m3 (100,000 cu ft) of heated air* 5922 2686.2  
Total (3.76 tons) 7517 3409.7  
* Using a density of 0.9486 kg/m3 (0.05922 lb/cu ft) for dry air heated to 99 °C (210 °F).

Theory of operation

[edit]

Generating lift

[edit]

Increasing the air temperature inside the envelope makes it less dense than the surrounding (ambient) air. The balloon floats because of the buoyant force exerted on it. This force is the same force that acts on objects when they are in water and is described by Archimedes' principle. The amount of lift (or buoyancy) provided by a hot air balloon depends primarily upon the difference between the temperature of the air inside the envelope and the temperature of the air outside the envelope. For most envelopes made of nylon fabric, the maximal internal temperature is limited to approximately 120 °C (250 °F).[46]

The melting point of nylon is significantly greater than this maximal operating temperature—about 230 °C (450 °F)—but higher temperatures cause the strength of the nylon fabric to degrade more quickly over time. With a maximal operating temperature of 120 °C (250 °F), balloon envelopes can generally be flown for between 400 and 500 hours before the fabric needs to be replaced. Many balloon pilots operate their envelopes at temperatures significantly less than the maximum to extend envelope-fabric life.

The lift generated by 2,800 m3 (100,000 cu ft) of dry air heated to various temperatures may be calculated as follows:

Air temperature
°C (°F)
Air density
kg/m3 (lb/cu ft)
Air mass
kg (lb)
Lift generated
kg (lb)
20 (68) 1.2041 (0.07517) 3,409.7 (7,517) 0, (0)
99 (210) 0.9486 (0.05922) 2,686.2 (5,922) 723.5 (1,595)
120 (248) 0.8978 (0.05605) 2,542.4 (5,605) 867.3 (1,912)
Thermal image showing temperature variation in a hot air balloon

The density of air at 20 °C (68 °F) is about 1.2 kg/m3 (0.075 lb/cu ft). The total lift for a balloon of 2,800 m3 (100,000 cu ft) heated to 99 °C (210 °F) would be 723.5 kg (1,595 lb). This is just enough to generate neutral buoyancy for the total system mass (not including the heated air trapped in the envelope, of course) stated in the previous section. Liftoff would require a slightly greater temperature, depending on the desired rate of climb. In reality, the air contained in the envelope is not all at the same temperature, as the accompanying thermal image shows, and so these calculations are based on averages.

For typical atmospheric conditions (20 °C or 68 °F), a hot air balloon heated to 99 °C (210 °F) requires about 3.91 m3 of envelope volume to lift 1 kilogram (equivalently, 62.5 cu ft/lb). The precise amount of lift provided depends not only upon the internal temperature mentioned above, but the external temperature, altitude above sea level, and humidity of the air surrounding. On a warm day, a balloon cannot lift as much as on a cool day, because the temperature required for launch will exceed the maximum sustainable for nylon envelope fabric. Also, in the lower atmosphere, the lift provided by a hot air balloon decreases about 3% per 1,000 m (1% per 1,000 ft) of altitude gained.[47]

Types of Hot Air Balloons

[edit]

There are several different types of hot air balloons, all with different means of taking and sustaining flight.

Montgolfier

[edit]
A Virgin hot air balloon flying over Cambridge

Standard hot air balloons are known as Montgolfier balloons and rely solely on the buoyancy of hot air provided by the burner and contained by the envelope.[48] This style of balloon was developed by the Montgolfier brothers and had its first public demonstration on 4 June 1783 with an unmanned flight lasting 10 minutes, followed later that year with manned flights.[49]

Gas

[edit]
1900 Olympics ballooning event at Le Parc d'aerostation, Paris[50]

Instead of using regular air it is also possible to use lighter than air gasses such as Helium or Hydrogen to lift the balloon,[51] though this means it is technically not a hot air balloon, though they did influence the design of hybrid balloons.

Hybrid

[edit]
During 1999, Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones achieved the first non-stop balloon circumnavigation of the globe in Breitling Orbiter 3, a Rozière/Hybrid balloon.
Early depiction of hybrid balloon

The 1785 Rozière balloon, is the main type of hybrid balloon, named after its creator, Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier. It has a separate cell for a lighter-than-air gas (typically helium), as well as a cone below for hot air (as is used in a hot air balloon) to heat the helium at night. Hydrogen gas was used in the very early stages of development but was quickly abandoned due to the danger of introducing an open flame near the gas, for example when Rozier attempted to cross the English Channel with his prototype, the fire used to heat the air ignited the Hydrogen and killed both him and his copilot thirty minutes after takeoff.[52] As such, all modern hybrid balloons now use helium as a lifting gas.[53] These balloons are commonly used for high performance records for hot air balloons.

Solar

[edit]
A four-meter-high solar balloon floating over a meadow

Solar balloons are hot air balloons that use just solar energy captured by an envelope. These envelopes are more specialized than for other hot air balloons, trying to maximize the amount of solar energy they collect. This can be accomplished by rotating the envelope during flight or by having the envelope colored black or another dark color.[54] They were pioneered in the 1970s in Europe by Tracy Barnes, Dominic Michaelis, and in the US by Frederick Espoo and Paul Woessher.[55]

Thermal Airship

[edit]
A Thermal airship being prepared for take-off during the "Warsteiner Internationale Montgolfiade" at Warstein (Germany)

A Thermal airship, or blimp, became a reality in the 1960s. Thermal airships were the first steerable air buoyant vehicles.[56] They utilized tail fins and a rudder and contained strictly hot air rather than a mix with hydrogen or helium.[56]

Observation Balloon

[edit]

Observation balloons were deployed as early as the American Civil War and used as reconnaissance towers.[57] The first military funded balloon in America was designed by Thaddeus Lowe on August 2, 1861, for the Union.[57] His design utilized gas from municipal lines to inflate the balloon as he did not have access to a portable generator.[57] Observation balloons during this time were all made using multicolored-silk, wicker baskets, and were vertically oriented and tear shaped.[58] Hydrogen, or illumination gas became the most used inflation fuel by the 20th Century, as it was lighter than air.[58] Observation balloon usage skyrocketed in Britain by the Royal Engineers at the end of the 19th Century, deploying to Sudan in 1885 and to South Africa during the Second Boer War from 1899 to 1902.[59]

Steering

[edit]

Due to the overall design of hot air balloons, controlled and precise steering of hot air balloons is not possible; it is possible for pilots to try to achieve basic directional control by changing altitude and catching different wind streams.[60] Wind in the northern hemisphere tends to turn east due to coriolis effect as the altitude increases.

Landing

[edit]
Landing Single Hot Air Balloon

The most effective way of landing a hot air balloon is to reduce the energy in the envelope, either by turning down the flame in Montgolfier and Hybrid balloons, or more directly by opening a flap in the envelope that will release the air/gas inside.[60]

Safety equipment

[edit]

To help ensure the safety of pilot and passengers, a hot air balloon may carry several pieces of safety equipment.

Basket

[edit]

To relight the burner if the pilot light goes out and the optional piezo ignition fails, the pilot should have ready access to a means of backup ignition, such as a flint spark lighter. Many systems, especially those that carry passengers, have completely duplicate fuel and burner systems: two fuel tanks, connected to two separate hoses, which feed two distinct burners. This enables a safe landing in the case of a blockage somewhere in one system or if a system must be disabled because of a fuel leak.

A fire extinguisher suitable for extinguishing propane fires is useful. Most balloons carry a 1 or 2 kg AB:E type fire extinguisher.[61]

A handling or drop line is mandatory safety equipment in many countries. This is a rope or webbing of 20–30 meters in length attached to the balloon basket with a quick-release connection at one end. In very calm winds the balloon pilot can throw the handling line from the balloon so that the ground crew can guide the balloon safely away from obstructions on the ground.[62]

For commercial passenger balloons, a pilot restraint harness is mandatory in some countries. This consists of a hip belt and a webbing line that together allow for some movement while preventing the pilot from being ejected from the basket during a hard landing.

Further safety equipment may include a first-aid kit, a fire blanket and a strong rescue knife.

Occupants

[edit]

At a minimum, the pilot should wear leather or flame-retardant fiber (such as nomex) gloves, so that they may shut off a gas valve in the case of a leak, even if there is a flame present; quick action in this regard can turn a potential catastrophe into a mere inconvenience. The pilot should additionally wear flame-resistant clothing covering their arms and legs; either natural fiber, such as cotton, linen, hemp, or wool, or engineered flame-retardant fiber, such as nomex, is acceptable in this capacity. Most engineered fibers (with the exception of rayon, which is also safe to wear) are thermoplastic; many are also hydrocarbons. This makes such fabrics very much unsuitable to wear near high temperatures, since non-flame-retardant thermoplastics will melt onto the wearer, and most hydrocarbons, whether fibrous or not, are suitable to use as fuels. Natural fiber will singe rather than melt or burn readily, and flame-retardant fiber generally has a very high melting point and is intrinsically non-flammable. Many pilots also advise their passengers to wear similar protective clothing that covers their arms and legs, as well as strong shoes or boots that offer good ankle support. Finally, some balloon systems, especially those that hang the burner from the envelope instead of supporting it rigidly from the basket, require the use of helmets by the pilot and passengers.

Ground crew

[edit]

The ground crew should wear gloves whenever there is a possibility of handling ropes or lines. The mass and exposed surface to air movement of a medium-sized balloon is sufficient to cause rope friction burns to the hands of anyone trying to stop or prevent movement. The ground crew should also wear sturdy shoes and at least long pants in case of the need to access a landing or landed balloon in rough or overgrown terrain.

Maintenance and repair

[edit]
Taken from the basket, the reflection of the balloon can be seen in the lake below. Obstacles in the landscape can inhibit smooth retrieval of the balloon upon landing.
A commercial balloon ride approaching its landing site at Bird-in-Hand, Pennsylvania

As with aircraft, hot air balloons require regular maintenance to remain airworthy. As aircraft made of fabric and that lack direct horizontal control, hot air balloons may occasionally require repairs to rips or snags. While some operations, such as cleaning and drying, may be performed by the owner or pilot, other operations, such as sewing, must be performed by a qualified repair technician and recorded in the balloon's maintenance log book.

Maintenance

[edit]

To ensure long life and safe operation, the envelope should be kept clean and dry. This prevents mold and mildew from forming on the fabric and abrasion from occurring during packing, transport, and unpacking due to contact with foreign particles. In the event of a landing in a wet (because of precipitation or early morning or late evening dew) or muddy location (farmer's field), the envelope should be cleaned and laid out or hung to dry.

The burner and fuel system must also be kept clean to ensure safe operation on demand. Damaged fuel hoses need to be replaced. Stuck or leaky valves must be repaired or replaced. The wicker basket may require occasional refinishing or repair. The skids on its bottom may require occasional replacement.

Balloons in most parts of the world are maintained in accordance with a fixed manufacturer's maintenance schedule that includes regular (100 flight hours or 12 month) inspections, in addition to maintenance work to correct any damage. In Australia, balloons used for carrying commercial passengers must be inspected and maintained by approved workshops.[63]

Repair

[edit]

In the case of a snag, burn, or rip in the envelope fabric, a patch may be applied or the affected panel completely replaced. Patches may be held in place with glue, tape, stitching, or a combination of these techniques. Replacing an entire panel requires the stitching around the old panel to be removed, and a new panel to be sewn in with the appropriate technique, thread, and stitch pattern.

Licensing

[edit]

Depending on the size of the balloon, location, and intended use, hot air balloons and their pilots need to comply with a variety of regulations.

Balloons

[edit]
Top of balloon during inflation. Crew is securing parachute vent.

As with other aircraft in the US, balloons must be registered (have an N-number), have an airworthiness certificate, and pass annual inspections. Balloons below a certain size (empty weight of less than 155 pounds or 70 kg including envelope, basket, burners and empty fuel tanks) can be used as an ultralight aircraft.

Pilots

[edit]

In Australia

[edit]

In Australia, private balloon pilots are managed by the Australian Ballooning Federation[64] and typically become members of regional hot air ballooning clubs. Commercial operations carrying fare paying passengers or charging for promotional flights must operate under an Air Operators Certificate from the Australian Civil Aviation and Safety Authority (CASA) with a nominated Chief Pilot. Pilots must have different degrees of experience before they are allowed to progress to larger balloons. Hot air balloons must be registered aircraft with CASA and are subject to regular airworthiness checks by authorised personnel.[65]

In the UK

[edit]

In the UK, the person in command must hold a valid Private Pilot's Licence issued by the Civil Aviation Authority specifically for ballooning; this is known as the PPL(B). There are two types of commercial balloon licences: CPL(B) Restricted and CPL(B) (Full). The CPL(B) Restricted is required if the pilot is undertaking work for a sponsor or being paid by an external agent to operate a balloon. The pilot can fly a sponsored balloon with everything paid for with a PPL unless asked to attend any event. Then a CPL(B) Restricted is required. The CPL(B) is required if the pilot is flying passengers for money. The balloon then needs a transport category C of A (certificate of air worthiness). If the pilot is only flying sponsor's guests and not charging money for flying other passengers, then the pilot is exempted from holding an AOC (air operator's certificate) though a copy of it is required.[clarification needed] For passenger flying the balloon also requires a maintenance log.

In the United States

[edit]

In the United States, a pilot of a hot air balloon must have a pilot certificate from the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), carrying the rating of "Lighter-than-air free balloon", and unless the pilot is also qualified to fly gas balloons, will also carry this limitation: "Limited to hot-air balloons with airborne heater". A pilot does not need a license to fly an ultralight aircraft, but training is highly advised, and some hot-air balloons meet the criteria.

To carry paying passengers for hire (and attend some balloon festivals), a pilot must have a commercial pilot certificate. Commercial hot air balloon pilots may also act as hot air balloon flight instructors. While most balloon pilots fly for the pure joy of floating through the air, many are able to make a living as a professional balloon pilot. Some professional pilots fly commercial passenger sightseeing flights, while others fly corporate advertising balloons.[66]

Accidents and incidents

[edit]
  • 1989 Alice Springs hot air balloon crash: On 13 August 1989, two hot air balloons collided at Alice Springs, Northern Territory, Australia, causing one to fall, killing all 13 people on board.
  • 2011 Somerset hot air balloon crash: On 1 January 2011, a hot air balloon attempting a high-altitude flight crashed at Pratten's Bowls Club in Westfield, Somerset, near Bath, England, killing both people on board.
  • 2012 Carterton hot air balloon crash: On 7 January 2012, a hot air balloon collided with a power line, caught fire and crashed at Carterton, North Island, New Zealand, killing all 11 people on board.
  • 2012 Ljubljana Marshes hot air balloon crash: On 23 August 2012, a storm blew a hot air balloon to the ground, causing it to catch fire on impact near Ljubljana, Slovenia. The crash killed 6 of the 32 people on board, and injured the other 26.
  • 2013 Luxor hot air balloon crash: On 26 February 2013, a hot air balloon carrying foreign tourists ignited and crashed near the ancient city of Luxor, Egypt, killing 19 of the 21 people on board, making it the deadliest balloon accident in history.[67]
  • 2016 Lockhart hot air balloon crash: On 30 July 2016, a hot air balloon carrying 16 people caught fire and crashed near Lockhart, Texas. There were no survivors.
  • 2021 Albuquerque hot air balloon crash: On 26 June 2021, a hot air balloon carrying five people made contact with a power line and crashed in Albuquerque, New Mexico. All five people on board died as a result of the accident.
  • On 14 January 2024, a hot air balloon crashed outside Eloy, Arizona,[68] killing the three passengers and pilot. Eight skydivers had exited the balloon immediately prior to the incident.
  • 2025 Santa Catarina hot air balloon crash: On 21 June 2025, a hot air balloon crashed after catching fire in Praia Grande, Santa Catarina, Brazil, killing 8 of the 21 people on board.[69][70]

Manufacturers

[edit]
New 2017 Cameron hot air balloon in flight

The largest manufacturer of hot air balloons is Cameron Balloons of Bristol, England, which also owns Lindstrand Balloons of Oswestry, England. Cameron Balloons, Lindstrand Balloons and another English balloon manufacturing company Thunder and Colt (since acquired by Cameron) have been innovators and developers of special shaped balloons. These hot-air balloons use the same principle of lift as conventional inverted teardrop-shaped balloons, but often sections of the special balloon envelope shape do not contribute to the balloon's ability to stay aloft.

The second largest manufacturer of hot air balloons is Ultramagic company, based in Spain, which produces from 80 to 120 balloons per year. Ultramagic can produce very large balloons, such as the N-500 that accommodates as many as 27 persons in the basket, and has also produced many balloons with special shapes, as well as cold-air inflatables.

One of the three largest companies in the world is Kubicek Balloons. From its factory in Brno, Czechia the company ships its products worldwide. Produces from 100 to 115 balloons per year. Kubicek company also focus on special shape balloons, FAA/EASA type certified and are delivered with a Standard Airworthiness Certificate.

One of the last Aerostar International, Inc. RX8 balloons

In the USA Aerostar International, Inc. of Sioux Falls, South Dakota was North America's largest balloon manufacturer and a close second in world manufacturing before ceasing to build balloons in January 2007. The oldest U.S. certified manufacturer is now Adams Balloons out of Albuquerque, New Mexico. Firefly Balloons, formerly The Balloon Works, is a manufacturer of hot air balloons in Statesville, North Carolina. Another manufacturer is Head Balloons, Inc. of Helen, Georgia.

The major manufacturers in Canada are Sundance Balloons and Fantasy Sky Promotions. Other manufacturers include Kavanagh Balloons of Australia, Schroeder Fire Balloons of Germany, Kubicek Balloons of the Czech Republic, and LLopis Balloons of France.

See also

[edit]
  • Aerostat
  • Barrage balloon
  • Blimp
  • Cluster ballooning
  • Espionage balloon
  • Gas balloon
  • High-altitude balloon
  • History of military ballooning
  • Hot air balloon festival
  • Hot air ballooning
  • Observation balloon
  • Research balloon
  • Skyhook balloon

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Tom D. Crouch (2008). Lighter Than Air. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-9127-4.
  2. ^ a b "U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission: Early Balloon Flight in Europe". Archived from the original on 2008-06-02. Retrieved 2008-06-04.
  3. ^ Deng, Yinke (2005). Ancient Chinese Inventions. Beijing: China Intercontinental Press. ISBN 978-7508508375., cited in Joel Serrão, Dicionário de História de Portugal, Vol III. Porto: Livraria Figueirinhas, 1981, 184–185.
  4. ^ Joseph Needham (1965). Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering; rpr. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
  5. ^ Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo. "Cartas Consultas e Mais Obras de Alexandre de Gusmão" (páginas do manuscrito 201–209).
  6. ^ De Gusmão, Bartolomeu. "Reproduction fac-similé d'un dessin à la plume de sa description et de la pétition adressée au Jean V. (de Portugal) en langue latine et en écriture contemporaine (1709) retrouvés récemment dans les archives du Vatican du célèbre aéronef de Bartholomeu Lourenco de Gusmão "l'homme volant" portugais, né au Brésil (1685–1724) précurseur des navigateurs aériens et premier inventeur des aérostats. 1917".
  7. ^ "Innovative Projects; The Extraordinary Nazca Prehistoric Balloon". Archived from the original on 2011-07-14. Retrieved 2017-07-24.
  8. ^ "Scientist and Aviator Julian Nott Dies After a Bizarre Accident". LTA-Flight Magazine. 29 March 2019.
  9. ^ Browne, Malcolm W. (18 November 1986). "Ballonist Has High Hopes But No Illusions". The New York Times. Retrieved 21 June 2020.
  10. ^ Glenday, Craig (2013). Guinness world records 2014. Guinness World Records Limited. ISBN 978-1908843159.
  11. ^ Tom D. Crouch (2009). Lighter Than Air.
  12. ^ "Start-Flying: History of Balloon Flying". www.start-flying.com. Retrieved 2007-12-28.
  13. ^ "Lighter than air: The Montgolfier Brothers". Retrieved 2007-12-28.
  14. ^ "National Air and Space Museum: Pioneers of Flight gallery". Archived from the original on 2008-04-06. Retrieved 2007-12-28.
  15. ^ "Fleurus (Municipality, Province of Hainaut, Belgium)". CRW Flags Inc. Retrieved 2010-04-21.
  16. ^ Hevesi, Dennis (2007-06-04). "Ed Yost, 87, Father of Modern Hot-Air Ballooning, Dies". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-06-04.
  17. ^ "Dr. Vijaypat Singhania enters the Guinness World Records" (PDF). Archived from the original on 2008-06-24. Retrieved 2008-06-22.
  18. ^ Fedor Konyukhov (17 September 2016). "Experience: I flew solo around the world in a hot-air balloon". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 September 2016. Article by Konyukhov describing the experience.
  19. ^ a b "Balloon World Records". Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. Archived from the original on 8 September 2016. Retrieved 17 September 2016. Steve Fossett and Fedor Konyukhov, both sub-class AM-15.
  20. ^ "Fédération Aéronautique Internationale". Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. 20 June 2019. Retrieved 20 June 2019.
  21. ^ "Balloon Propane Tanks". Pilot Outlook. Archived from the original on 2011-06-10. Retrieved 2010-06-05. Propane tanks used in hot air balloons are mainly constructed of either aluminum or stainless steel. Most aluminum tanks are vertical 10-gallon cylinders (DOT 4E240), built primarily for forklift trucks.
  22. ^ "Propane Cylinders". Propane 101. Retrieved 2010-06-05. Cylinders in liquid service are commonly found on forklifts.
  23. ^ "The Envelope". Eballoon.org. Retrieved 2006-12-21.
  24. ^ "Head Balloons". Archived from the original on 2007-01-10. Retrieved 2007-01-12.
  25. ^ "Machine Style 56500". Arch Sewing Company. 2003. Retrieved 2010-03-06. 2 Needle Double Lap Seaming Also called Felled Seam
  26. ^ Daniel Nachbar; Paul Stumpf (2008). "Construction basics". XLTA. Retrieved 2010-03-06. all of the seams are the "French fell" type
  27. ^ a b Annette Petrusso. "How Things Are Made: Hot Air Balloon, The Manufacturing Process". Advameg. Retrieved 2010-03-06. The double lap seam features two rows of parallel stitching along the folded over fabric seam. A few manufactures use a flat seam.
  28. ^ Jon Radowski (2010). "How To Sew A Hot Air Balloon!". Apex Balloons. Retrieved 2010-03-06. perfect French Fell hot air balloon seam
  29. ^ a b c "Cameron Balloons Fuel Tanks". Retrieved 2007-03-07.
  30. ^ "Mid-Atlantic Balloon Repair: Balloon Envelope Fabric Recoating". Retrieved 2007-03-07.
  31. ^ a b "Lindstrand Hot Air Balloons: Cloudhopper". Archived from the original on 2009-07-01. Retrieved 2008-06-19.
  32. ^ "Avian Balloon Corporation: The Avian Envelope". Archived from the original on 2016-08-18. Retrieved 2009-06-18.
  33. ^ "The early years of sport ballooning". David M. Wesner. Retrieved 2010-06-09.
  34. ^ "Airship and Blimp Resources: Balloon Envelope Design". Retrieved 2008-05-05.
  35. ^ "What's the Skinny on Racing Balloons?" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-13. Retrieved 2008-05-05.
  36. ^ "Ballongflyg Upp & Ner". Archived from the original on 2010-11-13. Retrieved 2010-06-05.
  37. ^ "The Basket". Retrieved 2009-06-18.
  38. ^ Deramecourt, Arnaud (2002). "Experimental Buildings: Collapsible Basket". Retrieved 2009-06-18.
  39. ^ "Virgin Global Challenger: An Interview with Per Lindstrand". Balloon Life. 1997. Archived from the original on 2015-09-23. Retrieved 2009-06-18.
  40. ^ "The Burner". Retrieved 2011-02-14.
  41. ^ "Hot Air Dirigible Specifications". Archived from the original on 2013-05-15. Retrieved 2009-06-28.
  42. ^ "Example Balloon Configurations". Retrieved 2009-06-28.
  43. ^ a b "Lindstrand Fuel System: Burners & Tanks". Retrieved 2007-03-05.
  44. ^ "Nitrogen vs. Heat Tapes". Archived from the original on 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2007-11-13.
  45. ^ "Flytec 3040 Digital Wireless Instrument Package". Archived from the original on 2012-03-21. Retrieved 2006-12-26.
  46. ^ "Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Type certificate data sheet no. A33CE" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-06-24. Retrieved 2008-06-16.
  47. ^ "How to Calculate the Weight of Air and Model Hot Air Balloon Lift". Retrieved 2008-01-01.
  48. ^ "NASA: Montgolfiere balloon missions for Mars and Titan" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-06-24. Retrieved 2008-06-04.
  49. ^ Scientific American Inventions and Discoveries, p. 177, Rodney P. Carlisle, John Wiley and Sons, 2004, ISBN 0-471-24410-4.
  50. ^ Ministere du Commerce de L'Industrie des Postes et des Telegraphes (1902). Exposition Universelle Internationale de 1900 a Paris. Concours Internationaux D'Exercices Physiques et de Sports. Rapports Publies Sous La Direction de M. D. Merillon. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale. pp. 178, 250–275.
  51. ^ "Gas vs Hot". balloonfiesta.com. Retrieved 2023-11-17.
  52. ^ "History Of Ballooning | National Balloon Museum". Retrieved 2023-11-17.
  53. ^ Amsbaugh, Allen. "Balloon Incidents". Retrieved 2009-01-16.
  54. ^ "Solar Balloons". Retrieved 2007-10-29.
  55. ^ "Brief history of Solar Ballooning – Aerocene". Retrieved 2023-10-20.
  56. ^ a b "The Difference Engine: Not all hot air". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 2023-11-17.
  57. ^ a b c "Balloons in the American Civil War". 2015-01-09. Archived from the original on 2015-01-09. Retrieved 2023-10-26.
  58. ^ a b "Observation Balloons On The Western Front". 2010-12-02. Archived from the original on 2010-12-02. Retrieved 2023-10-26.
  59. ^ "Early military ballooning". 2013-05-19. Archived from the original on 2013-05-19. Retrieved 2023-10-26.
  60. ^ a b "How Do You Steer A Hot Air Balloon? (With Examples)". Hot Air Flight. Retrieved 2023-12-06.
  61. ^ Annie (2021-05-21). "How Do Hot Air Balloons Not Catch On Fire? Read Here!". hotairflyer.com. Retrieved 2023-11-17.
  62. ^ "Droplines | Crew Training". cazooee.com. Retrieved 2023-11-17.
  63. ^ "Ballooning Basics". Retrieved 2019-07-26.
  64. ^ "Australian Ballooning Federation". Retrieved 2015-03-28.
  65. ^ "Hot Air FAQ: What regulations are in Place?". Archived from the original on 2010-01-10. Retrieved 2009-06-22.
  66. ^ "Professional Balloon Pilots". Archived from the original on 2016-10-24. Retrieved 2007-05-03.
  67. ^ Mohyeldin, Ayman; Gubash, Charlene; Newland, John (26 February 2013). "Foreign tourists killed in Egyptian balloon crash". World News on NBCNews.com. Archived from the original on 1 March 2013. Retrieved 26 February 2013.
  68. ^ "Balloon accident in Eloy, Arozona".
  69. ^ Pina, Rute; Lukiv, Jaroslav (21 June 2025). "At least eight dead in hot air balloon accident in Brazil". BBC.
  70. ^ Mendonca, Duarte; Brennan, Eve (21 June 2025). "At least 8 dead after hot air balloon accident in southern Brazil". CNN. Retrieved 21 June 2025.
  • Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
[edit]

General ballooning sites

[edit]
  • Hot Air Balloon Web Links

 

 

Arabian oryx
Male in Dubai Desert Conservation Reserve
Conservation status
Vulnerable
Vulnerable  (IUCN 3.1)[1]
CITES Appendix I[1]
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Bovidae
Subfamily: Hippotraginae
Genus: Oryx
Species:
O. leucoryx
Binomial name
Oryx leucoryx
(Pallas, 1777)

The Arabian oryx or white oryx (Oryx leucoryx) is a medium-sized antelope with a distinct shoulder bump, long, straight horns, and a tufted tail.[2] It is a bovid, and the smallest member of the genus Oryx, native to desert and steppe areas of the Arabian Peninsula. The Arabian oryx was extinct in the wild by the early 1970s, but was saved in zoos and private reserves, and was reintroduced into the wild starting in 1980.

In 1986, the Arabian oryx was classified as endangered on the IUCN Red List, and in 2011, it was the first animal to revert to vulnerable status after previously being listed as extinct in the wild. It is listed in CITES Appendix I. In 2016, populations were estimated at 1,220 individuals in the wild, including 850 mature individuals, and 6,000–7,000 in captivity worldwide.[1]

Etymology

[edit]

The taxonomic name Oryx leucoryx is from the Greek orux (gazelle or antelope) and leukos (white). The Arabian oryx is also called the white oryx in English, dishon in Hebrew,[3] and is known as maha, wudhaihi, baqar al-wahsh, and boosolah in Arabic.[4]

Taxonomy

[edit]

The name "oryx" was introduced by Peter Simon Pallas in 1767 for the common eland as Antilope oryx. He also scientifically described the Arabian oryx as Oryx leucoryx, giving its range as "Arabia, and perhaps Libya". In 1816, Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville subdivided the antelope group, adopted Oryx as a genus name, and changed the species name Antilope oryx to Oryx gazella. In 1826, Martin Lichtenstein confused matters by transferring the name Oryx leucoryx to the scimitar oryx, now Oryx dammah. The Zoological Society of London obtained the first living individual in Europe in 1857. Not realizing this might be the Oryx leucoryx of previous authors, John Edward Gray proposed calling it Oryx beatrix after Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom. Oldfield Thomas renamed the scimitar oryx as Oryx algazal in 1903 and gave the Arabian oryx its original name.[4]

Description

[edit]
In Yotvata Hai-Bar Nature Reserve in Israel

The Arabian oryx' coat is an almost luminous white, the undersides and legs are brown, and black stripes occur where the head meets the neck, on the forehead, on the nose, and going from the horn down across the eye to the mouth. Both sexes have long, straight or slightly curved, ringed horns which are 0.61–1.49 m (2–4.9 ft). It stands between 0.79 and 1.25 m (2.6 and 4.1 ft) tall at the shoulder and typically weighs between 220 to 460 lb (100 to 209 kg).[5][2]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]

Historically, the Arabian oryx probably ranged throughout most of the Middle East. In the early 1800s, they could still be found in the Sinai, Palestine, the Transjordan, much of Iraq, and most of the Arabian Peninsula. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, their range was pushed back towards Saudi Arabia, and by 1914, only a few survived outside that country. A few were reported in Jordan into the 1930s, but by the mid-1930s, the only remaining populations were in the Nafud Desert in northwestern Saudi Arabia and the Rub' al Khali in the south.[2]

In the 1930s, Arabian princes and oil company clerks started hunting Arabian oryxes with automobiles and rifles. Hunts grew in size, and some were reported to employ as many as 300 vehicles. By the middle of the 20th century, the northern population was effectively extinct.[2] The last Arabian oryx in the wild before reintroduction was reported in 1972.[6]

Arabian oryxes prefer to range in gravel deserts or hard sand, where their speed and endurance will protect them from most predators and hunters on foot. In the sand deserts in Saudi Arabia, they used to be found in the hard sand areas of the flats between the softer dunes and ridges.[2]

Arabian oryxes have been reintroduced to Oman, Saudi Arabia, Israel, the United Arab Emirates, Syria, and Jordan. A small population was introduced on Hawar Island, Bahrain, and large semi-managed populations at several sites in Qatar and the UAE. The total reintroduced population is now estimated to be around 1,000. This puts the Arabian oryx well over the threshold of 250 mature individuals needed to qualify for endangered status. However, the majority of the population is concentrated in Saudi Arabia.[1]

Behaviour and ecology

[edit]

The Arabian oryx rests during the heat of the day. A herd in Oman can range over 3,000 km2 (1,200 sq mi). Packs are of mixed sex and usually comprise between 2 and 15 induvials, though herds of up to 100 have been reported. Arabian oryxes are generally not aggressive toward one another, which allows herds to exist peacefully for some time.[7]

Feeding

[edit]

The diets of the Arabian oryx consist mainly of grasses, but it eats a large variety of vegetation, including buds, herbs, fruit, tubers and roots. Herds follow infrequent rains to eat the new plants that grow afterwards. They can go for several weeks without water.[7] In Oman, it primarily eats grasses of the genus Stipagrostis, flowers from Stipagrostis plants appeared highest in crude protein and water, while leaves seemed a better food source with other vegetation.[8]

Behavior

[edit]

When the Arabian oryx is not wandering its habitat or eating, it digs shallow depressions in the soft ground under shrubs or trees for resting. They can detect rainfall from a distance and follow in the direction of fresh plant growth. The number of individuals in a herd can vary greatly (up to 100 have been reported occasionally), but the average is 10 or fewer individuals.[9] Bachelor herds do not occur, and single territorial males are rare. Herds establish a straightforward hierarchy that involves all females and males above the age of about seven months.[10] Arabian oryxes tend to maintain visual contact with other herd members, with subordinate males taking positions between the main body of the herd and the outlying females. If separated, males will search areas where the herd last visited, settling into a solitary existence until the herd's return. Where water and grazing conditions permit, male Arabian oryxes establish territories. Bachelor males are solitary.[11] A dominance hierarchy is created within the herd by posturing displays, which avoid the danger of serious injury their long, sharp horns could potentially inflict. Males and females use their horns to defend the sparse territorial resources against interlopers.[12]

Adaptations for desert environments

[edit]

The Arabian oryx changes its physiology and behaviour at different times of the year to increase survival during times when food and water are in limited supply. During the summer, when droughts are common in the desert environments where it lives, the Arabian oryx will drastically reduce its minimal fasting metabolic rate by lying completely inactive beneath shade trees during the day and ranging over smaller areas at night to forage.[13] By letting its body temperature rise during the heat of the day, it uses less evaporative cooling and retains more body water, and at night, the cool night air lowers its temperature back to the normal range.[14] The oryx's arterial blood temperature is partly powered by a network of small arterial vessels with a large surface area called the rete mirabile, which branches from the two carotid arteries to the brain and allows for heat exchange between warm arterial blood and the cooler blood in the sinus cavities.[14] Because of these changes in behaviour and physiology, it was shown that Arabian oryx can reduce their urine volume, faecal water loss, and resting metabolic rate by at least 50%.[15]

The Arabian wolf is the Arabian oryx's only predator. In captivity and safe conditions in the wild, it has a maximum life span of up to 20 years.[11] In periods of drought, though, their life expectancy may be significantly reduced by malnutrition and dehydration. Other causes of death include fights between males, snakebites, disease, and drowning during floods.[16]

Importance to humans

[edit]
South Arabian fragment of a stela, depicts a reclining ibex and three Arabian oryx heads. The ibex was one of the most sacred animals in South Arabia, while the oryx antelope was associated with the god Attar, 5th century BC.

The Arabian oryx is the national animal of Jordan, Oman, the United Arab Emirates,[17] Bahrain, and Qatar.[18]

The Arabian oryx is also the namesake of several businesses on the Arabian peninsula, notably Al Maha Airways and Al Maha Petroleum.

In the King James Version of the Bible, the word re'em is translated as 'unicorn'. In Modern Hebrew, the name re'em lavan, meaning white oryx, is used in error for the scimitar-horned oryxes living in the sanctuary Yotvata Hai Bar near Eilat.[19] The scimitar oryx is called re'em Sahara. The Arabian name ri'ïm is the equivalent of the Hebrew name re'em, also meaning white oryx, suggesting a borrowing from the Early Modern Era.

A Qatari oryx named "Orry" was chosen as the official games mascot for the 2006 Asian Games in Doha,[20] and is shown on tailfins of planes belonging to Middle Eastern airline Qatar Airways.

Unicorn myth

[edit]

The myth of the one-horned unicorn may be based on oryxes that have lost one horn. Aristotle and Pliny the Elder held that the oryx was the unicorn's "prototype".[21] From certain angles, the oryx may seem to have one horn rather than two,[22][23] and given that its horns are made from hollow bone that cannot be regrown, if an Arabian oryx were to lose one of its horns, for the rest of its life, it would have only one.[21]

Another source for the concept may have originated from the translation of the Hebrew word re'em into Greek as μονόκερως, monokeros, in the Septuagint.[24] In Psalm 22:21, the word karen, meaning horn, is written in singular. The Roman Catholic Vulgata and the Douay-Rheims Bible translated re'em as rhinoceros; other translations are names for a wild bull, wild oxen, buffalo, or gaur, but in some languages, a word for unicorn is maintained. The Arabic translation alrim is the correct choice etymologically, meaning 'white oryx'.[25]

Conservation

[edit]
Arabian oryx in Al Ain Zoo

The Phoenix Zoo and the Fauna and Flora Preservation Society of London (now Fauna and Flora International), with financial help from the World Wildlife Fund, are credited with saving the Arabian oryx from extinction. In 1962, these groups started the first captive-breeding herd in any zoo, at the Phoenix Zoo, sometimes referred to as "Operation Oryx".[26][27] Starting with nine animals, the Phoenix Zoo has had over 240 successful births. From Phoenix, Arabian oryxes were sent to other zoos and parks to start new herds.

In 1968, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan of Abu Dhabi, out of concern for the land's wildlife, particularly ungulates such as the Arabian oryx, founded the Al Ain Zoo to conserve them.[28]

Arabian oryxes were hunted to extinction in the wild by 1972. By 1980, the number of Arabian oryxes in captivity had increased to the point that Arabian oryx reintroduction was started. The first release, to Oman, was attempted with Arabian oryxes from the San Diego Wild Animal Park.[6] Although numbers in Oman have declined, there are now wild populations in Saudi Arabia and Israel,[29][30] as well. One of the largest populations is found in Mahazat as-Sayd Protected Area, a large, fenced reserve in Saudi Arabia, covering more than 2,000 km2 (770 sq mi).[1]

On June 28, 2007, Oman's Arabian Oryx Sanctuary was the first site ever to be removed from the UNESCO World Heritage List. UNESCO's reason for this was the Omani government's decision to open 90% of the site to oil prospecting. The Arabian oryx population on the site has been reduced from 450 in 1996 to only 65 in 2007. At that time, there were fewer than four breeding pairs left on the site.[31][needs update]

In June 2011, the Arabian oryx was relisted as vulnerable by the IUCN Red List. The IUCN estimated there were more than 1,200 Arabian oryx in the wild as of 4 December 2020 2016, with 6,000–7,000 held in captivity worldwide in zoos, preserves, and private collections. Some of these are in large, fenced enclosures (free-roaming), including those in Syria (Al Talila), Bahrain, Qatar, and the UAE.[1] This is the first time the IUCN has reclassified a species as vulnerable after it had been listed as extinct in the wild.[32] The Arabian oryx is also listed in CITES Appendix I.[1]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f g IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group (2017). "Oryx leucoryx". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017 e.T15569A50191626. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-2.RLTS.T15569A50191626.en. Retrieved 16 January 2022.
  2. ^ a b c d e Talbot, L. M. (1960). A Look at Threatened Species. The Fauna Preservation Society. pp. 84–91.
  3. ^ Slifkin, Nathan, The Torah encyclopedia of the Animal kingdom, vol.1, OU Press, New York, 2015, pp.272-275
  4. ^ a b "Conservation Programme for Arabian Oryx: Taxonomy & description". National Wildlife Research Center. 2007. Archived from the original on 2011-09-04. Retrieved 2009-11-15.
  5. ^ "Oryx". Animals & Plants. San Diego Zoo. Retrieved 2023-03-26.
  6. ^ a b Stanley-Price, Mark (July–August 1982). "The Yalooni Transfer". Saudi Aramco World. Archived from the original on 2011-06-10. Retrieved 31 December 2012.
  7. ^ a b Massicot, P. (2007). "Arabian Oryx". Animal Info. Archived from the original on 25 January 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-11.
  8. ^ Spalton, J. A. (1999). "The food supply of Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) in the desert of Oman". Journal of Zoology. 248 (4): 433–441. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1999.tb01043.x.
  9. ^ Leu, H. (2001) "Oryx leucoryx" (On-line), Animal Diversity Web.
  10. ^ How to go wild. New Scientist (1989-10-28). Retrieved on 2013-01-01.
  11. ^ a b "Arabian Oryx". The Phoenix Zoo. Archived from the original on 15 February 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-27.
  12. ^ BBC (2012-04-27). Science & Nature – Wildfacts – Arabian oryx. Retrieved on 2013-01-01.
  13. ^ Williams, J. B.; Ostrowski, S.; Bedin, E.; Ismail, K. (2001). "Seasonal variation in energy expenditure, water flux and food consumption of Arabian oryx Oryx leucoryx". Journal of Experimental Biology. 204 (13): 2301–2311. Bibcode:2001JExpB.204.2301W. doi:10.1242/jeb.204.13.2301. PMID 11507113.
  14. ^ a b "Animals at the extremes: The desert environment". June 10, 2019. Archived from the original on 2017-01-05. Retrieved November 8, 2021.
  15. ^ Ostrowski, S.; Williams, J. B.; Mésochina, P.; Sauerwein, H. (2005). "Physiological acclimation of a desert antelope, Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx), to long-term food and water restriction". Journal of Comparative Physiology B. 176 (3): 191–201. doi:10.1007/s00360-005-0040-0. PMID 16283332. S2CID 14680361.
  16. ^ "The Oryx Facts". The Arabian Oryx Project. Archived from the original on 12 January 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-27.
  17. ^ "The UAE National Symbols..." TEACH United Arab Emirates. 2 (2). Jess Jumeira School. Nov–Dec 2014.
  18. ^ Orr, Tamra (30 June 2008). Qatar. Marshall Cavendish. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-7614-2566-3. Retrieved 30 July 2011.
  19. ^ "Hai-Bar Yotvata Nature Reserve | | Sights". www.lonelyplanet.com. Retrieved 2022-09-18.
  20. ^ "Mascot of Asian Games 2006". Travour.com. Archived from the original on 16 February 2008. Retrieved 2008-02-07.
  21. ^ a b Rice, M. (1994). The Archaeology of the Arabian Gulf, c. 5000–323 BC. Routledge. p. 63. ISBN 0-415-03268-7.
  22. ^ "Arabian Oryx". Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County. Archived from the original on 2007-10-10. Retrieved 2008-01-25.
  23. ^ Tongren, S. (1981). What's for Lunch: Animal Feeding at the Zoo. GMG Publications. ISBN 978-0-939456-00-0.
  24. ^ Gerritsen, Wim (June 2005). "Bestaat de Eenhoorn;of Hoe de wetenschap de bijbel de baas werd". De Groene Amsterdammer.
  25. ^ "Smith & Van Dyke Arabic Bible translation - Deuteronomium 33:17". Bible Hub.
  26. ^ The Arabian Oryx Project – Timeline. oryxoman.com
  27. ^ Phoenix Zoo Species Survival Plan Archived 2011-07-16 at the Wayback Machine. Phoenixzoo.org (2006-01-03). Retrieved on 2013-01-01.
  28. ^ "History". Al Ain Zoo. 15 October 2017. Retrieved 2019-03-18.
  29. ^ Saltz, D. (1998). "A long-term systematic approach to planning reintroductions: the Persian fallow deer and the Arabian oryx in Israel". Animal Conservation. 1 (4): 245. Bibcode:1998AnCon...1..245S. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1795.1998.tb00035.x. S2CID 85943063.
  30. ^ Gilad, O.; Grant, W.E. & Saltz, D. (2008). "Simulated dynamics of Arabian Oryx (Oryx leucoryx) in the Israeli Negev: Effects of migration corridors and post-reintroduction changes in natality on population viability". Ecological Modelling. 210 (1–2): 169. Bibcode:2008EcMod.210..169G. doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2007.07.015.
  31. ^ "Oman's Arabian Oryx Sanctuary: first site ever to be deleted from UNESCO's World Heritage List". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 18 January 2008. Retrieved 2008-01-16.
  32. ^ Platt, John (17 June 2011). "Arabian Oryx Makes History as First Species to Be Upgraded from "Extinct in the Wild" to "Vulnerable"". scientificamerican.com. Retrieved 20 June 2011.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Silverberg, Robert (1967). The Auk, the Dodo, and the Oryx: Vanished and Vanishing Creatures. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company. LCCN 67002554. L.C. Card AC 67-10476.
[edit]
  • Images and movies of the Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx) at Arkive
  • Living Desert article
  • Arabian Oryx at Al Wabra Wildlife Preserve
  • Oryx leucoryx on Animal Diversity Web
  • Oryx leucoryx on Mammal Species of the World

 

United Arab Emirates
General Civil Aviation Authority (GCAA)
الهيئة العامة للطيران المدني
Map
 
Agency overview
Jurisdiction UAE
Agency executive
  • Abdulla bin Touq Al Marri, (Chairman)
  • Saif Mohammed Al Suwaidi, (Director General)
Website www.gcaa.gov.ae

The General Civil Aviation Authority (GCAA, Arabic: الهيئة العامة للطيران المدني) is the federal civil aviation authority of the United Arab Emirates. Its headquarters is in Al Rawdah, Abu Dhabi.[1]

The GCAA is the federal responsible authority for the control and regulation of civil aviation in the UAE.

History

[edit]

It was established in 1996 by Federal Cabinet Decree (Law 4) to regulate Civil Aviation and provide designated aviation services with emphasis on safety and security and to strengthen the aviation industry within the UAE and its upper airspace. In late 2009, the GCAA opened its new Air Navigation Centre, The Sheikh Zayed Centre, which is considered the largest and busiest air traffic management facility in the Middle East as well as one of the world's most technically advanced centres in terms of its design.[2]

Memberships

[edit]
  • The United Arab Emirates, represented by GCAA, is an active member of the Council of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and its specialized committees.
  • GCAA is also an active member of the Arab Civil Aviation Commission (ACAC) Executive Council, and currently H.E Saif Mohammed Al Suwaidi, Director General of GCAA is heading the ACAC Executive Council.

Functions

[edit]

1. Promulgate the general policy for civil aviation and propose laws and regulations which ensure the organization thereof, forming the necessary committees to implement such policies and representing the State in the negotiations on matters involving its functions, and proposing the conclusion of bilateral agreements in the area of civil aviation and aerial meteorology, in accordance with the provisions of the constitution.

2. Promulgate rules related to overflight of the territory of the State, landing and departing from its airports, and the conditions of carriage of passengers, cargo and mail according to the Law, and in coordination with local authorities.

3. Determine areas over which flying is prohibited, restricted or dangerous on coordination with the concerned authorities in the State.

4. Determine aerial navigation routes to be followed on entry, departure or overflight by those aircraft given permission to transit the territory of the State.

5. Determine the condition for the registration of aircraft in the State, the registering and issue of the airworthiness certificates, and the specifications of nationality and registration symbols, and notifying the International Civil Aviation Organization regarding aircraft to which these matters apply and if any changes that may occur thereto.

6. Determine requirements for the appointment of aircraft crew members and issue the necessary licenses and related documents as appropriate.

7. Determine the documents which should be carried on board aircraft in the conduct of and inspect compliance of those aerial navigation aircraft registered in the State.

8. Promulgate the rules which ensure protection of aerial navigation lights and signals, in coordination with the local authorities.

9. Undertake the Air Traffic Control operations in the State.

10. Ensure enforcement of accepted international regulations and standards at airports of the State, including the aviation agreement, and following up their execution in coordination with the local authority.

11. Promulgate and organize training programs as appropriate to various aviation specialties.

12. Supervise the maintenance and repair of aircraft and the extent of conformity of manufacture with international and local specifications, and the locations in which such maintenance and repair are accomplished, and issue the necessary certificates and licenses for conducting such activities.

Sectors and departments

[edit]

UAE GCAA organization structure Archived 2014-05-01 at the Wayback Machine

  • Air Navigation Service Provider (ANSP) is structured along standard ICAO principles. The responsibilities include airspace design and the provision of safe and efficient air navigation service to the users of the UAE airspace.[3]
  • Safety Affairs is responsible for safety technical functions such as flight operations, airworthiness and aviation environment, licensing and certifications as well as air navigation and aerodromes. Safety Affairs is also responsible for supporting the UAE Federal Government in the definition of national safety policies, developing and issuing regulations, certify, license, oversee, support the development of policies for all technical domains of responsibility, coordinating national and international technical strategic agreements and providing technical experts for the air accidents and incidents investigation.[4]
  • Security Affairs Archived 2014-04-29 at the Wayback Machine is responsible for supporting the UAE Federal Government in the development and review of national aviation security policies and legislation.[5]
  • Strategy & International Affairs plays a critical role in helping the organization to identify, develop, implement and monitor Business Excellence initiatives, concepts and sustain integration of Management Systems across the board to ensure continuous quality improvement in every business units.[6]
  • Support Services provide essential administrative, financial and support service throughout the organization.[7]
  • Air Accident Investigation is responsible for the investigation of civil accidents and incidents within and outside the UAE in accordance with Annex 13 to the ICAO Convention. The purpose of the department is to enhance aviation safety by determining through investigation, the Findings and Significant Factors that lead to Safety Recommendations intended to prevent reoccurrence. It is not to purpose of this activity to apportion blame or liability.[8]

Facilities

[edit]

The GCAA headquarters are in Abu Dhabi.[9][10] The headquarters, built after the GCAA's establishment as a former directorate, includes an air traffic control center and supporting facilities. In June 2009, GCAA shifted its Air Navigation Services to the newly built Sheikh Zayed Air Navigation Centre in Abu Dhabi. The Sheikh Zayed Centre is considered the largest and busiest air traffic management facility in the Middle East as well as one of the world's most technically advanced centres in terms of its design. The Air Navigation Centre consists of two main buildings, the Area Control Centre (ACC) and Emergency ACC. It also has four 60 meter masts for communication equipments.[11] In addition to the Abu Dhabi headquarters, the GCAA also has a regional office in Dubai. The facilities of the Dubai offices, established to serve Dubai and the northern emirates, were also constructed after the GCAA was established.

See also

[edit]
  • Azza Transport Flight 2241
  • UPS Flight 6

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Contact Us". General Civil Aviation Authority. Retrieved 2023-06-16. General Civil Aviation Authority 34 Saif Ghobash St - Al Rawdah - W58 - Abu Dhabi
  2. ^ "Welcome to UAE General Civil Aviation Authority". Gcaa.gov.ae. Retrieved 2018-02-12.
  3. ^ "Air Navigation Services". Gcaa.gov.ae. Retrieved 2018-02-12.
  4. ^ "Aviation Safety Affairs Sector". Gcaa.gov.ae. Retrieved 2018-02-12.
  5. ^ "Security Affairs". Archived from the original on 2014-04-29. Retrieved 2014-06-22.
  6. ^ "Strategy & International Affairs". Gcaa.gov.ae. Retrieved 2018-02-12.
  7. ^ GCAAIT. "Support Services". www.gcaa.gov.ae. Retrieved 12 February 2018.
  8. ^ "AIR ACCIDENT PRELIMINARY REPORT BOEING 747-400F/N571UP GCAA ACCIDENT REPORT N° 13/2010." General Civil Aviation Authority. Retrieved on 14 February 2012.
  9. ^ "Contact Us." General Civil Aviation Authority. Retrieved on 4 September 2010.
  10. ^ Abu Dhabi Headquarter Location Map Archived 2016-03-15 at the Wayback Machine." General Civil Aviation Authority. Retrieved on 4 September 2010.
  11. ^ "Welcome Message". Archived from the original on 2013-10-13. Retrieved 2014-06-22.
[edit]
  • General Civil Aviation Authority (in English)
  • General Civil Aviation Authority (in Arabic)

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